中学英语教学中礼貌语言与策略的研究
姓名:雷玉兰申请学位级别:硕士专业:学科教学·英语指导教师:王玉霓
20041001
摘要礼貌是人类文明的标志,是人类社会活动的一条重要准绳。作为一种社会活动,语言也同样受到这条准绳的约束。自从Brown&Levinson提出“面子保全论”,Leech在此基础上进一步发展成礼貌原则以来,很多学者从各个领域对礼貌原则、礼貌策略进行了大量的研究,但是将他们与中学英语教学结合起来的研究却不多见。中学英语教学中的礼貌研究主要在于两个方面:礼貌语言和现象,礼貌策略在课堂教学中的运用。礼貌语言是符合礼貌原则而使用的语言,以体现说话人对别人的礼貌行为,如友好、尊重,不伤害别人面子等行为。礼貌原则由合作原则衍变而来。说话者出于礼貌的缘故,故意违反合作原则中的某些规则,产生言外之意。礼貌原则分为得体准则,慷慨准则,赞誉准则,谦逊准则,一致准则,同情准则。不同的语言表达方式体现出不同礼貌程度差异。就中学英语教学中的礼貌语言而言,主要表现形式有人称代词、模糊表达、疑问旬式、时体语态等。英语课堂教学中的礼貌策略是指教师为了激发学生的学习主动性或营造和谐融洽的谍堂气氛等所采用的具褥缓和作用晌策略。这酝策略主要包括三类:积极礼貌策略,消极礼貌策略和非公开策略。通常它稍汉语畜或j§语言形式塞臻。本研究以这些理论为基础,结合定性和定量的研究方法,探索中学英语教耀对漂堂藐貔策略酶盛爰。通过瓣卷调查,{乍者主要整绕以下三个方面收集和整理了有关数据:(1)教师在英语课堂中对学生面l子需求的关注程度;(2)教师在具体实践中对不同礼貌策略的运用;(3)学生对教师采取的礼貌策略的反应以及礼貌策略对教与学的影响。本文的分析和讨论证明:礼貌策略确实对提高英语课堂教学效果具有重要的价值,它对创造良好的教学环境,以及建立融洽的师生关系起着其他教学策略无法替代的作用。同时,礼貌研究对英语教学有着重要意义。传统的英语教学把重点放在语言形式、结构上,注重词汇、语法等基本技能,忽视语言的社会功能。这种教学法培养出来的学生能够较为准确地使用语言,但却不一定能合适地使用语言,甚至经常无意识地冒犯对方。因而礼貌研究对提高学生的语用能力有着积极的影响,对指导教师的课堂教学有着重要的参考价值。关键词:礼貌,礼貌语言,礼貌策略,中学英语教学AbstractPolitenesssymbolizeshumancivilization,andiSoneofconductcodesofhumanbeings.Asasocialactivity,languageuseissubjecttothiscodeaswell.SinceBrownandLevinsonproposedFace—SavingTheoryandLeechdevelopeditbyputtingforwardthePolitenessPrinciple,manyscholarshaveexploreditinvariousfields.However,fewofthemhaveeversteppedintotheapplicationofpolitenesstheoriestoEFLclassroomsinsecondaryschools,whichiscategorizedintotwomajoraspects:politenesslanguageandphenomena,andpolitenessstrategiesemployedbyteachersinEFLclassrooms.Politenesslanguagecomplieswiththepolitenessprinciple,whichembodiesthespeaker’Spolitenesstoothers,suchasfriendliness,esteem,sparingothers’face,etc.Thepolitenessprinciplesomehowderivesfromthecooperativeprinciple.Thespeakerdeliberatelyviolatessomemaximsofthepolitenessprincipletoproducesomeillocutionarymeanings.Thepolitenessprincipleconsistsoftactmaxim,generositymaxim,approbationmaxim,modestymaxim,agreementmaximandsympathymaxim.Differentwaysofexpressionembodydifferentpolitenessscales.IntermsofthelinguisticexpressionsofpolitenessmainlyusedinELTinsecondaryschools,thereareinclusivewe,hedgingdevices,interrogativesentences,thesimplepasttense,theprogressiveaspectandthepassivevoice.Teachers’politenessstrategiesaretakentorefertoverbalornonverbalstrategiesemployedbyteachersthathaveamitigatingfunctiongenerallytostimulatelearners’motivationorcreateanenjoyableandharmoniousatmosphereinclass.Suchstrategiesincludethreemaincategories:positivepolitenessstrategies,negativepolitenessstrategiesandoff-recordpolitenessstrategies.Basedontheresearchesdoneonpoliteness,thisstudyexaminesEnglishteachers’applicationofpolitenessstrategieswithinEFLclassroomsinsecondaryschools,mainlybymeansofqualitativeandquantitativeIIImethods.Allthefeedbackgainedfromthequestionnairesurveysfallsintothreecategories:(1)teachers’faceand(3)theonconcernsforthelearnerswithinEFLclassrooms;(2)teachers’implementationEFLclassroomandtheeffectsofPSofcertainPSwithinparticularfeedbacktotheapplicationofPSfromlearnersbothteachingandlearning.a7矗eanalysisanddiscussionofthestudyprovethatPSistenONandenduringfeatureofallinterpersonalrelationshipsinclassroomcommunications.Itisconcemedwiththecommunicationactivitiesthathelptocreate,maintain,andsustalnthecounectioilsbetweenteachersandlearnersAndweholdthatnomatterwhattypesofpolitenessslrategiesareaappliedinEFLclassrooms,thepurposeistocreatepleasantandharmoniouscontextforthelearners,toinitiatetheirself-esteemandenthusiasmforEnglishstudy,andbeenthehenceachievemoreeffectiveteaching.ThemethodstudyofpolitenessinELTisofgreatimportance.TraditionalinELThasGrammar-TranslationMethod,whichfocusesonemphasizesreadingandtranslationandgrammarandvocabularyteaching.Studentstaughtinthismethodmayunconsciouslyoffendotherssentencessentencesormisunderstandwhatotherssaynoordoeventhoughtheutteredbythemhavegrammaticalamistakes.髓融is.theseOllarenotappropriatelyusedinaspecificcontext.Thevalueofthistheimprovementofstudyliesinthefactthatithaspositiveeffectlearners’pragnmticcompetence.ItisofparticularsignificanceinhelpingteacherstoachievemoresuccessfulteachingKeywords:polkeness,politenesslanguage,politenessstrategies,ELT攮secondaryschoolsntroductionPoliteness,whichisasocialphenomenon,touchesuponeveryrespectoflife.Itnaturallycomesintothetheorists’viewindifferentperspectives.Itisofgreatconcemwithsociologists,sociolinguistists,socialanthropologistsandsocialpsychologists,etc.Theyprobeintothecontentsofpoliteness,itstheIlookintoitfrommeans.Hereinitsmainlyffmction,andprinciple,itspragmaticangle.Anyway,roughlyspeaking,politenessascanbeconsiderateofothersinordertoachievesomesocialgoals,suchtoselfmaximizingthebenefitandother,minimizingthefacethreateningnatureofasocialact,etc.Theultimategoalofpolitenessis“theattainmentofcomity”(Leech,1983:104).Itistruethatpeoplecanachievethiskindofsocialpurposebymanymeans,butnon-verbalexpressionandverba!expressionmayberegardedasmainlytwovehiclesinpresentingthedegreeofpoliteness.Betweenthem,verbalexpression,orsay,utterancetakespriorityovertheasother,whichistobeafocusinthispaper.Thepolitenesslanguage,aswellasatransmittingallkindsofinformationandmaintainsfunctionoflanguage,establishesandnotimprovesthesocialrelationshipwitheachother.Itonlyinhumandailylife,butalsoinmanifestsitselfhumancultural,educational,economicandothersociallives.Thereforepolitenessanditsrelevantlanguageshouldbetakenintoaccount.TheEnglishalanguageteaching(ELT)inonesecondaryschoolsinChinahashistoryofabouthundredyears.AretrospectofthehistoryofELTinChina'ssecondaryschoolsshowsthatitis纯lloftwistsandturns,whichhavebeencausedexclusivelybypoliticalfactors。Sincetheverybeginning,themethodofELTcommonlyusedhasbeentheGrammar—TranslationonMethod,whichemphasizesreadingandtranslationandfocusesandvocabularyteaching.Thismethodhelpslittletogrammarstudents’enhancecommunicativeabilityinthethousandsofschoollanguage.Itisrememberedwithdistastebyalearners,towhomEnglishlearningistediousrulesendlesslistsofunusableofgrammarmemorizingexPerienceandvocabulary.Studentstaughtinthismethodhavelimitedproficiencyinlunderstandingandspeaking,andlittleEnglish.Theyareornoskillinreadingandwritingcanalmost“deafandmute”andtohardlycommunicateinsimpleEnglish.Eventhoughtheyattemptcommunication.ThusdoSO,theymayfailinthepedagogicallyspeaking,asforforeignlanguageteachingandcross.culturalcommunication,thestudyofpolitenesslanguage,DhenomenaandstrategiesiSofvitalshouldfocusskillsofnotimportance.Weholdtheviewthatweonlyonthestudents’masteryofthelanguageskills,namely,onlistening,speaking,readingandmakewriting,butalsofosteringstudents’pragmaticcompetence.Inotherwords,itisessentialforstudentstohaveagoodknowledgeofhowtosentencesfromscratchandaknowledgeofprefabricatedhowtoselectpatterns,ontheotherhand,theyshouldknowfunctioncompositesforandretrieveorready。madeformappropriatesituationsisacontexts(Nattinger&Delarrico.2000:13).Teachingactivity,whichplaysancomplicatedsocialimportantroleinthedevelopmentofthesociety.Therefore,astudyofpolitenessstrategiesinEnglishlanguageandgreatlanguageteachingfromdifferentanglesisofsignificance.曩listhesisconsistsofsixchaptersbesidesitsintroductionandconclusion.ChapterOneservesasaliteraturereviewofface,politenessandrelevanttheoriesaboutpoliteness.BydoingSO,thischaptersetsthecontexti鞋whichthestudyhasgrown.ChapterTwofocusesonthestudiesofisandwesterntheChinesecultureinculture,aspolitenesspolitenessculturallyspecific.ChapterThreepresentsageneraldescriptionofpolitenesslanguageandpolitenessphenomenainEFLteachinginsecondaryschools。allChapterFourmakesattempttoanalyzetheapplicationofpolitenessstrategiesinthecontextofEFLclassbothinverbalandnonverbalforms.Itoff-recordPSPSandofverbalthreePS,negativetypesPS:positivepresentsandalsofourtypesofnonverbalintonationPS:eyeFivecontact,facialexpression,anandsilence.Chapterprovidesoverviewofthecollectionofoftheandquestionnairestudy,dataanalysesimplementationandresultsofquestionnairesurveys。InChapterSix。weexplore氇efortheEnglishlanguageteaching.ofthestudypresentimplications2ChapterOneLiteratureRevieWoftheStudyofLinguistiCPolitenessPolitenessasalinguisticphenomenonhasdrawnconsiderableattentioninthelasttwofromlinguists,sociologists,andlanguagephilosophersdecades(Lakoff,1975;Leech,1983;BrownhisclassicandLevinson,1978).Grice,inthesis(1975),putsforwardtheCooperativePrinciple(cPforshort),onwhichmanyscholarswhofollowbasetheirownwritings,andalsotalksofpolitenessissueinlanguageinstudyisinspiredtopassing,andthereupontheLeech(1983)setsuppolitenessspringup.AndthepolitenessprinciplerPPforcannotshog)withtheinpurposeofrescuingGrice’SCP,fortheCPprovidepeopleasatisfactoryexplanationforthefactthattheCPiSobservedengagedconversation.AChinesescholarXuwhenareShenghuan(1992)elaboratesdevicethatpeopleLeech’SPPToR.Lakoff,itisflexibletojudgeatheextentofpolitenessbythelinguisticforms.Inheropinion,politenessisusetomitigateconflictinthecourseofinterpersonalcommunication.ThispointofviewisinfluentialEFLlearners’communicativecompetence.tothedevelopmentoftheMostnoticeableiSBtownLevinson’SresearchcarlandLevinson(1978,1987).Brownandabeseenintwoways.OneiSthatitisfairlythoroughcross—cul饥traltreatiseaonfacethreateningacts.Theotheristhatitiscross—culturalaccountofpolitenessphenomenabywayofexamininghowpolitenessiSemployedtoredresstheperformanceofFTAs.PolitenessiSthUSunderstoodthroughitsfunction(GuYueguo,1990:241).1.1TheConceptsofPclitenessandFaceOurconcerninthispaperisprimarilywithtllepolitenesslanguageandhaveschools。Attheinverybeginning,someconceptssecondarystrategiestobedefined.TheConceptofFace1.1.1ThenotionoffacewasfirstputforwardbyGoffrnan(1967),Faceisdefinedas“thepositivesocialvalueapersoneffectivelyclaimsforhimselfbythelineothersassumehehastakenduringaparticularcontact'1(Goffman,as1967:9).AccordingtoGoffman,facehastodowithemotionalconcepts“embarrassed”,“humiliated”or‘‘losingface”,etc,andfaceisthepositivesocialvaluewhichpeopleeffectivelywinforthemselvesandtherefore,representsindividual’Sselfrealization.BrownandLevinson(1978:63)considerandfaceoneofthetwospecialwithproperties(i.e.faceLevinsondefinefacerationality),whichindividualsnormalcommunicativecapabilities,namely,ModelPersons,possess,andBrownandasthepublicself-imagethateachmemberinsocietyintendstoattain.BrownandLevinson,intheirbook,distinguishtwokindsofface:positivefaceandnegativeface.Positivefacemeans“theeverymemberthathiswantofwantsbedesirabletoatleastsomeothers”(BrownnottoandLevinson,1987:64);negativefacereferstopeople’Sexpectationbeimposedon,ortheirownbehaviornotbeimpeded.Incommunication,respectforbothoftheotherparty’SpositivefaceandnegativefaceisrequiredSOthatthepurposeofconversationcarlbefinallyreached.1。{。2TheConceptofPcliteness“Politeness”iSitselforacodeofconductfordaily1ife,whichiScharacteristicofmoralmaintainaethicprinciplesandincludesattemptsdonetoharmoniousinterpersonalrelationship。But,theconcepthasitsauniquetheoreticalmeaninginpragraatics.Leechoffersinhisworkvaguedefinition,whileinBrownandveryisLevinson’s(1978,1987),politenesstodefinedassome“strategies”,whichseembeclearenAccordingtothem,politenessisvariousrationalacts,includingIinguisticacts,whichPersonsperformtoModelansarisfythewantofsavingface.Politeness,inasinteraction。Cananotherperson‘Sbedefinedthemeansemployedtoshowawarenessofface(-Yule,2000:60).BrownandLevinson'sconceptofpoliteness,inessence,isstrategic,thatis,attainingthegoalofsavingfacesforbothsidesincommunicationthroughlanguagestrategies。”Thestrategiesoffaceredress”(orpolitenessstrategies)arethosethatindicatenon—FTAone’Sintentions.Inthecourseofinteraction,inordertomaintainownand鹰theotherparty’Sface,thebestpolicyistoAccordingtoanotherusepolitelanguage.isasource(Lakoff,1990:34),“Politenesssystemofinterpersonalrelationsdesignedtofacilitateinteractionbyminimizingthepotentialforconflictandconfrontationinherentinallhumaninterchange”.Obviously,whetheritisdefinedasoraanattempttotoretainharmoniousinterpersonalrelationship,strategiessystemfacilitateinteraction,usepoliteness,inessence,ispeople’Sstrategicminimizepotentialconflictandconfrontationinterpersonalrelationshipincommunication.languagethataaimstosatisfyingandthusmaintain12RelevantTheorjesonPoIi七enessareInthispaper,somepolitenesstheoriesprobedinto.thecooperativeprinciple,thefacetheory,thepolitenessprinciple,andGuYueguo’Sarepolitenessmaxims.Besides,afewpolitenessstrategiesproposedtosaveface.1.2.1Grice’SCooperativePrinoipIetoPolitenessphenomenonisconsideredinthestudyoflinguisticimportantpremisesofbeaconceptionofimportanceonepragmatics(Leech:1983)whilepolitenessistooftheaunderstandinghavefullunderstandingofCP(Grice:1975).CP,thecenterpieceofGrice’Sreasoningatmeansthatpeopleengagedinconversationwillsaysomethingsuitablethatpointinthedevelopmentoftalk.G-ricehasmadeCPsomewhatmoreexplicitbysubdividingitintoasetofconversationalmaximsasandsubmaxims.Thesemaximsareexpressedfollows:Thecooperativeprinciple“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedasisrequired,atthestagepurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged."(Grice,1975:45)Gricefurtherbreaksthisprincipleintothefollowingfourcategoriesinhisworks“LogicandConversation”fl975):(1)ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.r2)Themaximofquanti纱contributionasMakevourinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.f3)Themaximofrelevancecontributionsrelevant.Makeyour《4)ThemaximofmannerAvoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.Theexistenceofthemaximsmayproduceconversationalwhichimplicamre,allowsaspeakertoconveymeaningbeyondwhatisliterallyonaaexpressed.Ingeneral,aGriceanconversationalimplicaturedependsthreefoldprocess,first,aspeakersayssomethingthatseemstoinvolveamaximviolation,oratleastitrequireswassaidconformstoCP;second,thelittleefforttounderstandhowwhatasspeakerexpectstobeinterpretedorbeingcooperativeandtheheareractuallydoesassumehersheisbeingcooperative;third,thespeakerthinksandexpectsthatthehearerthinksofwhatthespeakerthinks,thatthehearercanWOrkoutwhatadditionalaresuppositionsarenecessaryinorderthatthespeaker'scontributionsactuallycooperative.Here,onethingtobementionedisthatnotallscholarsoflinguisticpragmaticshavebeenwillingtoacceptGrice’Satheory(Horn,1984;SperbernotandWilson,1986,1987).Thoughlaidadetailedanalysisofitismade,ithassolidfoundationforthedevelopmentofthepolitenesstheory.1.2.2BrownandLeviAninfluentialnson’STheoryofPoliteness:theFaceTheorytheoryonpolitenessisthefacetheoryputforwardbyonBrownandLevinsonin1978,whichisbasedGoffmaninthelate1950s.AccordingtothefacenotionraisedbyaGoffrnan,‘‘face’’issacredthing6foreveryhumanbeing,anessentialfactorcommunicatorsallhavetopayoneattentionto;facewantsarereciprocal.i.e.ifwantshisfacecaredfor,hegeneralnotionofshouldcareforotherpeople’Sface(Goffrnan,1959).The‘face’ofGoffmanbecamemuchmorespecificinBrownandLevinson’Stheory.Inthistheory,BrownandLevinson(1978)claimconstructthatwe,aspersonalparticipantsinconversation,actuallyandbuildrelationshipsthroughthecommunicationwenegotiatewithotherpeople.Thentwotypesoffaceareidentified:positivefaceandnegativeface.Positivefaceisthedesiretobeapprovedof,andnegativefaceisthedesiretobeunimpededinactsone’Saction.BrownandLevinsonholdthatnearlyallspeechareface-threateningacts(FTAs);theyintrinsicallyinfringeonthehearer’Sfacewants.Face-threateningactsvaryintermsofthekindofthreatinvolved.SomeFTAsthreatenthehearer’snegativefacebyimposingonthehearer(e.g.requests,orders,offers,expressionsofanger).OtherFTAstothreatenthehearer’Spositiveface(desirespeaker’Slackofberespected)byindicatingtheconcemforthehearer’Sself-image(e.g.disagreement,interestingly,criticism,accusations,insults,contradiction,boasts).MoresomeFTAsarethreateningtothespeakerhimselfratherthantothehearernottobecausetheyeitheroffendthespeaker'sneedbeimposedupont}leyoffendthe(thanking,acceptingoffers,makingunwillingpromises)orspeaker'sneedforpositiveself-image(apologies,confessions,admissionofresponsibility)(CitedfromHeZhaoxiong,1995).Sincespeechinteractioninvolvessocialrelationsandculture,thereexiststhequestionofpoliteness.BrownandLevinsonsuggestthatpolitenessreferstoexpressionsthatCallsoftentheface—threateningintentionsthatsomeoninteractionalactivitiesbringaboutface.Inotherwords,politenessistheattemptforthefacewantsofthespeakerandthehearer;SOBrownandLevinsoncallpoliteness“strategies”f1978:73).Accordingtotheface—threateningdegreeofspeechacts,politelinguisticdevices,fromtheleastpolitetothemostpolite,aredividedinto:bald—on—record,positivepoliteness,negativepoliteness,off-recordpoliteness,andnon—FTAs.(SeeFigure1)7LesserJkr1.Withoutredressiveaction,baldf2。PPfOntherecordlof}DotheFTA{L{1【withredressiveaction.{Lj4.Ofrthetecord、5J3m'tdothe黜3.npNote:¥4EstimationofriskoffacelOSS1Greamr2:positivepoliteness3:negativepolitenessFig1:PossiblesWategiesfordoingFTAs(BmwnandLevinson,1987:60)Whiletheyseepolitenessissomeredressivestrategiestosavefacesofboththecommunicators,BrownandLevinsonsharesomethinginthisregard.InLeech’SPP,TactMaximisthefundamentalrule,forTactMaximistheusemostoftenused.and“Tact”iSthebasisofpolitenessandpoliteoflanguagemeanstacticalorstrategicuseoflanguage(HewhohaveZhaoxiong,1989:179).BrownandLevinsonarethebeginnerssystematicallyallitsowndiscussedtheissueoffaceinpowertopersuadeactlinguistics;andtheirtheory,forhand,Canandexplain,hasitslimitation.Forexample,thespeechoneCanyoudoitanothertime?onthethreatenthehearer’Spositiveface,becausethespeakerisnotsatisfiedwiththehearer’Stheotherhand,thejob.Ontimespeaker‘Saskingthehearertodothejobanotherimpedesthehearer'sfreedom,thusthreateninghisorhernegativeface.1.2.3Leech’sPolitenessPrinclPIePolitenessPrincipleraisedbyLeechisanotherinfluentialtheoryonpoliteness.LeechagreesinprinciplewiththeGriceanframeworkofcooperativemaxims,buthesuggeststhatitshouldbeproliferated.Hearguesthatthefieldoflinguisticpragmaticisthestudyofgoal-directedlinguisticbehavior,anditisgovernedbya“textualrhetoric”andan“interpersonalrhetoric”,eachconstitutedbyasetofmaxims(Leech,1983:15—17).WithinCooperativeaInterpersonalRhetoric,wefindnotonlyGrice’SPrinciple(CP)wit}lallthemaximsintheirtraditionalf01Tn.butalsoPolitenessPrinciple8(ev),withsixmaximsofTact,Generosity,Approbation,Modesty,asAgreement,Sympathy,andotherprinciples,suchBatterIronyPrincipleandPrinciple.Leechholdsthattheseprinciples,togetherwithotherwithinTextualprinciplesRhetoric,“sociallyconstraincommunicativebehaviorinvariousways”,buttheydonot“providethemainmotivationfortalking”(Leech.1983:l6-17).AccordingensuretoLeech,theseprinciplesserveas“regulativefactorswhichathatonceconversationisunderway,itwillnotfollowfruitlessordisruptivepath”(Leech,1983:17).onLeechpatternshisPolitenessPrincir'leGrice’SCooperativePrincipleanddividesPPintoApprobationanumberofmaxims:TactMaxim,GenerosityMaxim,andSympathyareMaxim,ModestyMaxim,AgreementMaximtogoinpairsMaxim(Leech,1983:132).UndermaximsthattendaseachmaximofPPtheretwosubfollows:(1)TACTMAXIM(inimpositivesandcommissives)(a)Minimizecosttoother.(b)Maximizebenefittoother.(2)GENEROSITYMAXIM(inimpositives(a)Minimizebenefitto(b)Maximizefa)Minimizeself.costtosellandcommissives)(3)APPROBATIONMAXIM(inexpressivesdispraiseofother.andassertives)m1Maximizepraiseofother.(4)MODESTYMAXIM(inexpressivesandassertives)(a)Minimizepraiseofsellofself.(b)Maximizedispraise(5)AGREEMENTMAXIM(inassertives)(a)Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother.(b)Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.(6)SYMPATHYMAXIM(inassertives)(a)Minimizeantipathy(b)Maximizebetweenselfandother.sympathybetweenselfandothen9ThecorecontentofthePPcanbesummedupas"Trynottoexpressbeliefthatisunfavorabletoothers,buttrytoexpressbeliefthatisfavorabletoothers.ThepeculiarityofLeech’SPPdwellsaonthefactthateverymaximislinkedwithcertainspeechactivitytoillustratetherelationshipofthePPwithspeechactivityandtheoptionalrelationshipbetweenpolitenessandrepresentationofspeech.TheessenceofthePPis,inthepositiveaspect,“Givecredittotheothercauseperson”,andinitsnegativeaspect,“Donotoffensetotheotherperson(Leech,1974:339).’’Asshownabove,theCPhasthe“functionofregulatingwhatwesay”,whilethePPstressesthestrategyofhowtoexpressourselvesmoretactfully.1.3Po|itenessStrategIesConcerningthenegativeandpositiveface,BrownandLevinsonproposesomepolitenessstrategiestosaveface.Theyareinthemainpositiveareandoff-recordstrategies,whichpolitenesspolitenesspoliteness,negativewidelyappliedinspeechacts.Apositivepolitenessstrategy,throughwhichthehearer'spositivefaceawantissatisfied.Thisstrategyleadstherequestertoappealtocommongoal.andeventhehearermakesspeakerfriendship(Yule,2000:64).Thesentences。feelapprovedviaexpressionssuch熬thoseinthefollowing《1)Whata盘ntasticdesignyouhave!(2)Look,I'mf3}Youaresureyouwon'tmindoverifiborrowyourbike.r渡h|。I'llthinkitandletyouknowmydecision.whichthehearer’SnegativefaceAnegativepolitenessstrategy,throughwantissatisfied.Thespeakerrespectsthehearer’Srighttofreedomandformusedismostinhissoci文interaction。ThetypicalindependencequestioncontainingaamodalverbsuchasSentences鞲),(5)and籀)。《4)Couldyoulendmeapen?《5lItmsorrytobotheryou,butcanIaskyouforapenorsomething?to海;Iknowyou'rebusy,butmightIaskyouif-era—ifyouhappenextrapenthatIcould,youknow—eh—maybehaveanborrow?(Yule,2000.'64)Theuseofthisstrategyresultsinanapologyfortheimpositioncarllike(5).inMoreelaboratenegativepolitenessworksometimesbeheardextendedtalk,oftenwithhesitation,similartothatshownin(6).Onthesurface,suchquestionspresentnegativenegativetotoanopportunityfortheothertoanswerintheathequestionwithoutthesamerefusaleffectofrespondingwithadirectimperative.Moreover,thechoiceofatypeofexpressionthatislessdirect,potentiallylessclear,generallylonger,andawithamorecomplexstructuremeansthatthespeakerisofconcernmakinggreatereffort,intermsacrossofface,thanisneededsimplytogetthebasicmessageefficiently(Yule,2000:65).Off-recordpolitenessaddressed.Thestrategy,throughwhichthehearerisnotcandirectlyhinthisspeakerdoesnothavetoaskforanything.Heneeds,orexpresshisneedsequivocallyandgenerally.Forexample:(7)Whatahot&yf(ie.Howaaboutadrink?)(8)Thissoupisbitbland(i.e.Passthesalt.){9)A.WhatdoyouthinkofHarry?B.Nothingwrongwithhim.一.e.Idon'tthinkhe'sverygood.)1.4GuYueguoandHiHeSPoiitenessMaximszhaoxiong(1995)inhisreviewofpolitenessstudyinChinasaidthatnotaseriousstudyofpolitenesswithintheChineselinguisticcirclesdidbeginuntiltheearly1980s.AndamongtheChinesescholarswhohavecontributedsignificantlytothestudyofpoliteness,GuYueguoshouldbementioned(HeZhaoxiong,1995:6)。AccordingtoGu,PolitenessPrincir’leismoresuitabletoChinesedatathanFaceTheoryandconsequentlymodelsonPolitenessPrincipleandformulateshisownpolitenessprincipleanditsmaximsintheChineseculture。Thefouressentialslespectfulness,modesty,attitudinalwarmthandmaxims.Gu(1990)demonstratesrefinementareelaboratedintopolitenessfourmaxims:(1)Theself-denigrationmaxim(2)Theaddresstermmaxim(3)The(4)ThetactmaximandthegenerositymaximprincipleofbalanceandtheprincipleofsincerityrevisionofthemanddemonstratesaltogetherGu(1992)offersfurtherfivemaxims.(1)Theself-denigrationmaxim:orThemaximconsistsoftwoclausessubmaxims:(a)denigrateselfand(b)elevateother.Thismaximabsorbsthenotionofrespectfulnessandmodesty.(2)Theaddresstermmaxim:anThemaximreads:addressyourinterlocutorwithterm.Thismaximisbasedwarmth.onappropriateaddressthenotionsofrespectfulnessandattitudinal(3)Therefinementmaxim:Themaximreferstosellsbehaviortootherwhichmeetscartainstandards・Withandaregardtolanguageuse.itusemeanstheuseofrefinedlanguagebanonfoullanguage.Theofeuphemismsandindirectnessisalsocovered.(4)Theagreementmaxim:Themaximreferstoeffortsmadebybothinterlocutorstomaximizeagreementandharmonyandminimizedisagreement.(5)thevirtues-.words..deedstomaxim:costThemaximrefersminimizingandmaximizingbenefittootheratreceivedthemotivationallevel,andtomaximizingbenefitandminimizingcostselfattheconversationallevel.12ChapterTwoPolitenessandOuIturaIVaIuesPeopleofdifferentculturalbackgroundsalltrytoobserveandmaintainpoliteness,whichisinterpretedandaasasocialphenomenon,ameanstoanendtonormimposedbythespecificsocialconventions。Althoughwehaveacceptthefactthatpolitenessisuniversal,weshouldatthesametimebeupontheawarethatculturesvaryinthewaysofrealizingpolitenessandstandardsforitsjudgment.Todealwithpolitenesstheories,wemusttakeculturalspecificityintofullaccount.2.1FaceandMianzi0r£ianBrownandLevinson(1978,1987)distinguishbetweentwokindsoffaces:negativefaceandpositiveface.Aperson’Snegativefaceistheneedtobeindependent,tohavefreedomofaction,andnottobeimposedonbyothers.Aperson’Spositivefaceistheneedothers,tobetreatedwantsareasatobeaccepted,evenliked,bymemberofthesamegroup,andtoknowthathistosharedbyothers(Yule,1996:60).AccordingactsareBrownandLevinson,mostspeechface-threateningoracts(FTAs),astheyresorttointrinsicallyinfringeuponeitherthespeaker’Sthehearer’Sfacewants.forthebothConsequently,politenessisthestrategywhichpeopleoftenpurposeoflighteningorsofteningtheimposition.Therefore,theycanachievetheirpurposewithouthurtinganyone’Sfeeling.However,despitetherepeatedclaimsofuniversality,wefindFaceTheoryisnotexample。‘‘formulaicentreaties’’suchD黑二∑如塔№_=三≥Pardon———。acceptmythanks.asonehundredpercentapplicableastotheChineseculture.Forf赡e。2)Pleasearecountedbald—on—recordFTAs,whichthreatenthehearer’Snegativeactsface。TotheChineseears,however,theyareintrinsicallypoliteasanditwouldsoundquitecounter-intuitivetolabelthembeingpoliteinthe13Chineseculture.AlsoinBrownandLevinson’Sparadigminviting,offering,compliments,exDressionsofadmirationandhearer'snegativefacewantsSOonarea11speechactswhichthreatenthetoUSafBrownandLevinson,1978:70—71).ButonChinese,theseactsarejustthecontrarypolitetothehearer,whenspeakerisperformingsuchanact,whatheisconsideringisthehearer’Sfacewantsinsteadofhisownfacewants.Ifthehearerdoesnotacceptthethingsgivenordislikesdoingtheactrequiredbythespeaker,whereascanheputhisface?Thespeechactsabove,intheChineseculture,Callactuallybetermedas“face-enhancingact'’tothehearer.BrownandLevinsonthinkofpositivefaceandnegativefaceaspersonaldesires.whichrepresenttheindividual.orientedsocialvalues.IntheChineseculture,personaldesiresmeatlthatsocialanindividual’Sneedcannotexceedthevaluesofindividualpositionascribedtohim,representingthesubordinatingtosociety.IntheChineseculture,facegoesbeyondBrownandLevinson’Sdescriptionofa“publicself-image”thatissatisfied,preserved,enhanced,orthreatenedininteractions:rather,faceiSsocialcapitalandCanSObeeitheron.Face“thick'’or‘‘‘thin'’borrowed,given,augmented,diminishedandgoesdeeptotheacoreofaChineseperson’Sidentityandintegrity.And,sinceareChineseperson’Sidentityandintegrityentwinedwithothers,facethenarebecomes“collectiveproperty”.PeopleinChinathatstirupencouragedtoavoidactsjealousy,affrontauthorityorincurill-will—thingsthatCandamageface(WuCuiyu,1999:107).2.2ModestyandSelf—denigratiOnItisuniversallyacknowledgedthattoshowmodestyisawaytobepolite.aButhowthismaximiSadheredtoindifferentculturesiSverymuchmatterofdegree.ThedifficultyhereisthatitishardfornativespeakersofEnglishtointerprettheculmralconnotationsoftheChineseqianxuthataredifferentfromthatofLeech's“modesty'’inhisModestyMaximtoinmanyways:theasChineseqianxuiStoputdownselfandbuildupotherswhere“modesty”inthePPisavoidingself-praise;theChineseqianxuisthecoreoftheChinesepolitenesswhiletheModestyMaximisnotSOimportantastheothermaximsofLeech’SPP;theChineseqianxuisavirtueofself-cultivation(zuorenyaoqianxujinshen)thatisthefoundationonwhichpolitenessisbuiltwhereasEnglish‘‘modesty”isastrategyofminimizingpraiseofself(BiJiwan,1999:348—349).ItisgoodmannersintheEnglishculturetoacceptacomplimentbysayingsomethinglike‘‘Thankyou”toshowappreciationofthepraise,becausethisistheEnglishconvention.ButitisnotonlypolitebutalsoavirtueintheChineseculturetorespondtoacomplimentbysayingsomethinglike“哪里,哪里,还差得远哪”.SeveralclassicalexamplesoftheChineselimaoaremostcitedinChinesescholars’works3)外国客人:你的工作做得很好。(Foreignguest:Youhavedoneagoodjob.)中国服务员:不,我的工作还有很多缺点。(Chineseattendant:No.Therearemanydefects).(WangJianhua,1998:20)4)Foreignteacher:Yourhandwritingisbeautiful!Chinesestudent:No,no,notata11.Youarejoking.(HeZiran,1988:96&1997:183)Inthiscase,misunderstandingsoccur,andtheChineseattendantandtheChinesestudentareblamedforsuchpragmaticfailures。ButtheyareconsideredpoliteaccordingtotheChinesenormofpoliteness.Thus,therearisesaproblemastowhichculturetobeadheredtoincross-culturalencounters.theotherorourown。TheessentialcauseofthepreviousmisunderstandingsmentionedisthatpeopletendtousesuchwesterntheoriesasthePPandtheFTAsastherulestogovernthecommunicativeactsofallcultures.AnothercruelaIpoim,whichmustbetakenintoaccountwhenwetatkaboutChinesemodesty,isthatthereasonofdenigratingselfisshowingrespectforothers.Itsessentialcharacteristicismutualrespectandmutualcare.WhenaChinesegivesapresenttoanother,heusuallydenigratesthegiftinordertodenigratehimselfsay:andtoshowrespectfortheother,hewill5)区区薄礼,不成敬意,请笑纳。(This6)It’Satisjustatrifle,butpleaseacceptit.)bargainbasementsaleit.Insimilarsituations,anativespeakerofEnglishmightsay:notmuch.It’Sjustatrifle;IpickeditupinyoucouldaMacy’Slastweek.IthoughtthatmaybeSuperficially,thetwouseutteranceshaveonecommoncharacteristic--self-denigrating.However,thelatter,withitsillocutionaryforceas“ThebargainsIboughtissuitabletoyou”,constitutesathreattothefaceoftheChinese,andthusabsolutelyunacceptable.Theself-deprecatingremarksproducetheeffectofself-denigrating,butgoagainstthesubmaximof“respectfultoother”.IntheChineseculture.theinterestsofothersimportantarethoughttobemorethanthoseofhisown.andreasonSOtIleChinesecultureiSalsocalledtoshowrespectother-orientedculture.Theothersforself-denigratingisfor2.3PrIvaeyandArtitudinalWarmthPrivacyisvaluedinallcultures,butitismoreEnglishculturethanintheChinesehighlyregardedintheasculture.WhatiSconsideredasanactofpolitenessintheChineseculturemightsimplyberegardeduponaanintrusionperson’SprivacybyanEnglish-speakingperson.UnlikeBrownandLevinson。StheoryofavoidingFTAs(avoidingintrusionimportanceonindividualfreedom),theChinesepeopleisequallyimportantasattachgreattomutualcare,whichmodesty.GuYueguohasrightlyincluded“attitudinalonewarmth”,ahighlyvaluedtraitintheChineseculture,asofthefournotionsunderlyingtheChineseconceptionoflimao.ToshowwarmthandconcernisregardedasapoliteactintheChineseevenculture.That’SwhywhentwoChinesemeeteachotherforthefirsttime。t11evmightaskeach16other’sage,maritalstatus,offspring,occupation,and1995:7).Thisincome(HeZhaoxiong,conflictswiththepeople’SindividualprivacyofEnglishaculture.Nativespeakershavesucheasilyoffendedbystrongsenseofprivacythattheyarecommentswhichseemtoinvadetheirpersonallife.“Whereareyougoing?”isparticularlydistastefultothem.TheChineseoftengreetforeignersinChinawith“Whereareyougoing?”Ontheareonehand,speakersofEnglishcomplainthattheChinesetheChinesethinkthattheyperson.Buttheeffectsarespies;ontheotherhand,concernbeingpolitebyshowingfortheotherrunagainsttheirgoodintentions.ThefollowingexampleistakenfromaChinesenovel:7)我:你多大了?(Howoldareyou?)同乡:十九。(Nineteen.)我:参加革命几年了?(Howmany(Oneyear.)我:你是怎样参加革命的?(Howdidyoujointherevolutionaryarmy?)yearshaveyoubeenintherevolutionaryarmy?同乡:一年。同乡:大军北撤时我自己跟来的。(Ifollowedthemwhenthearmymovednorthward.)我:家里还有什么人呢?(Anyothermembersinyourfamily?)同乡:爹,娘,弟弟,妹妹,还有一个姑姑也住在我家里。(Dad,mum,brothers,sistersandanaunt.)我:你还没娶媳妇吧?(Youhaven’tgotmarried,haveyou?)(茹志娟《百合花》)Thisismorelikethansimplyaaquestioningoracheckingofthehouseholdoccupantschat.ButintheChineseculture,itisnotconsideredimpolitetobutasanindicationofconcemandkindness.Butspeakersfromthe17Englishculture,shouldtheybeaskedallsuchquestions,theywouldfeeltheirinteractantisrudelyinfringingupontheirprivacy.24lndiVIdHalismandUollectIVIsmIthasbeensuggestedthattheessentialdifferencebetweentheChineseandtheEnglishculturesisthatofvaluesystems--collectivismoftheChinesecultureandindividualismoftheEnglishdefinesindividualismandcollectivismasculture.Hofstede(1991)follows:Individualismpertainsaretosocietiesinwhichthetiesbetweenindividualsorloose:Everyoneisexpectedtolookafterhimselforherselfandhisasherimmediatefamily.Collectivismpeoplefrombirthonwardsareitsoppositepertainstosocietiesinwhichintegratedintostrongcohesivein—groups,toprotectwhichthroughoutpeople’Slifetimecontinueunquestioningtheminexchangeforloyalty(CitedfromFengQi).areAccordingtoHofstede,inindividualisticcultures,peopleself-orientedmoreareandtheconceptsuchas“I",independenceareandself-relianceemphasized,whereasincollectivisticcultures,擞eyandtheconceptssuchmoregroup-orientedas‘钢”,interdependence,duties,obligations,needs,areandviewsofin—groupsvalued.Individualgoalsaremoreimportantintoindividualistsocietiesthanincollectivistsocietieswhilebelonginggroupsisemphasizedmoreincollectivistsocietiesthaninindividualistsocieties.Valuesystemdeterminestheruleofcommunication.Forinstance,itispoliteandnaturaltocompleteallofferorinvitationandresponseinasingleact(direct“yes”or“no”response)intheEnglishculture,butpoliteintheChineseculturemodificationofbothofferstoitisalsohandleitinaseriesofacts:ThepoliteoveraandinvitationsspreadconversationalsequencebetweentWOparties,insteadofbeingconfinedtooneorutteranceorturn.Therefore。itisnaturaltotheChinesewhenallofferinvitationismadeonce,refused,madeagain,refused,madeagain,andatlengthacceptedorfinallyrefused.Individualismandcollectivismexistinallcultures,membersofindividualisticcultureslearnsomecollectivisticvaluesandacquireviewsofthemselvesasinterrelatedwithotherswhilemembersofcollectivisticasculturesleamsomeindividualisticvaluesandacquireviewsofthemselvesauniqueperson.Somemembersofcollectivistsocietiesmayappeartobemoreindependentthanothersbecauseoftheinfluenceofindividualisticvalues.Andsomemembersinindividualisticsocietiesalsomaytendtobemoreinterdependentthanothers,fortheyareinfluencedmorebycollectivisticvalues(ibid).ChapterThPoIitenessLanguagereeSinEnglishTeachinginSecondarySchool3.1TheAimoftheForeignLanguageTeachingTheaimoftheforeignLanguageteachingistodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.Gumperzsays:“Communicativecompetencedescribesthespeaker’Sabilitytoselect,fromthetotalityofgrammaticallycorrectexpressionsavailabletohim,formsthatappropriatelyreflectthesocialnormsgoverningbehaviorinspecificencounters,"(CitedatfromWangXiuwen).Communicativecompetencelinguisticisaimedappropriateapplicationofformsinsocialcommunication.TheAmericansociolinguististHymesthinksthatcommunicativecompetenceconsistsoffourimportantparameters:grammaticality,appropriateness,suitabilityandpracticability.Amongthemtheessenceofbothsuitabilityandappropriatenessisthesocialusersculturalcompetenceoflanguagecontactusers,i.e.,languageshouldfollowcertainsocialnormsandmoralcodesthatexistintheEnglishcontext.SOthattheycanhaveanadequatewithothers.OneeffectiveWayandavoidpragmaticfailure.toachievethegoalistousepolitenesslanguage3.2LinguisticReaIizatlOVISPolitenessbothinEnglishcultureandChineseculturecanberealizedinaremanyways,ThelinguisticrealizationsinthesetWOlanguagesmainlycanlexicalitemsandsyntacticstructures.Thatistosay,politenessrealizedbywords,phrases,simplesentences,complexbeandsentencesonacombinationsofsentences(discourses).Inthissection,we’11carrystudyofpolitenessinsecondaryschoolsfromtheperspectivesoflexicalformsandsyntacticstructures.baseou.rWe,11examplesonthesourcetextsinordertosimpli移thediscussion.3.2.1LexlcaIFormsusePoliteness强languageiswidelyseen,anditisOilalinguistictakesissafetothatlanguagesaypolitephenomenon.Itvariousforms,suchastoneofvoice,lexicalforms,syntacticstructures,etc.First,let’Sconsiderthecasesofthelexicalitemsthatareusedaspolitenessmarkers.32.1.1TheVerbP/easeTheusualpolitenessmarkerinEnglishisplease.IntheidiomP'sandMindyourQ's,Preferstoplease,andOisthehomophonicofthankyou.Whenoneuses“please”and“thankyou”frequently,heisobviouslypolite.‘'Please’’istheabbreviationof“ifyouplease”.Forexample:Pleasecomein2Comein,ifyouplease.Itisusedinthefollowingcircumstances.orders:(1)Giving(2)PoliteComehere,please.question:Please,mayIcomein?(3)Politeaffirmativeanswer:A:Wouldyouliketohelpme?to.B:Yes.please.I'dlove(4)Expressingone’Swishespolitely:Willyoupleasesingthissongfor(5)Politerequest:us?WouldyouPleaseOCCURSmindstandingoverthere,please?oreitheratthebeginninginthemiddle,orattheendofasentence.Forexample:Pleasecometotheclassintime.Doplease,befrankwithme.WouldyoumindstandingPleasedoesnotitselfoverthere.please?changetoallorderintoanapoliterequestbutithasamitigatingfunctiongenerallysentences:makeorderroundabout.ComparethetwoPleasestandatattention.(order)request)Couldyoustand戢attention,please?(polite2132.1.2PersonalTheflexiblePronouns,,ofpersonalweandyouusepronounsishelpfultobothpositivepolitenessandnegativepoliteness.First.adistinctionismadebetween‘inclusivewe’whereweincludethehearer(=‘youLet’ShaveLettSgetandaI’),and‘exclusivewP’,whereitexcludesthehearer:cookie,then.(exclusive)withondinner,eh?(inclusive)of“we”).ItseemsthatboththespeakerThespeakerimpliesinclusionofthehearerbyusingthefirstpersonpluralpronoun(theobjectivecaseandthehearershareinterestsandopinions.Thusthepositivefacesofbothsidesaresaved.toSecond,whenEnglishnativespeakersneedothers,forthesakeofpoliteness,theypersonalpronouns.Forexample:Pierrementionthemselvesandothernounsplace…I’afterandandIdidhaveaverygoodtimeattheball.eaten.HeandIhavealreadyHowever,whenmeyadmitthattheydidsomethingwrong,‘‘I,’isusuallyputbeforetheother:IandTomareresponsiblefortheaccident.Iandshemadethemistake.瓣issometimesusedtorefertothewriterinformalwriting,where1wouldbestrictlyappropriate:AsweshowedinChapterThereisdoctortalksaTwo…(Swan,1980)useplayful,condescendingaofwereferringtothehearer,e.gtatochildpatient:HowUSearewe(=-you)feelingtoday,then?(ibid)notLast,weusuallyWe,insteadofyouwhencriticizingothers.Fordoinghisexercisescarefully,example,theteacherscoldsthestudentforhemaysay:Weshouldn’tdoexercisesSOcarelessly.3.2。{。3lndeflnitePronouns:0170,SOIlqOand80///8-Oneisusedinconversationmostlyby‘careful’speakers,especially,andclassandmiddlepeopleupperperhaps,byForexample:intellectuals(Swan,1980)Onesimplydoesn’tdrinkredwinewithfish.D肝PiSaratherformalandimpersonalpronoun,meaning‘peopleingeneral',youisitsinformalequivalent:ODeneveroneknowswhatmayhappen.Sinceisnotusedtorefertoanindividual,itisapolitenessmarkerwhenwecriticizesomeone:Oneshouldn'tdothingslikethat.Inmakingartinvitationoranoffer,itis(fororthesamereason)politeortopresupposeanacceptancebyusingsomesome。insteadofanyany-(QuirkandOreenbaum,1973:110).Forexample:you1ikesomemorecoffee?WouldDoyouneedsomeonetohelp?Shallwedosomethingelse?Whatisthematter?Hassomethinghappened?Some(orsome一)isoftenusedinnegative,interrogative,orconditionalsentences,whenthebasicmeaningisassertive.Forexample:Did1anybody』rsomebody、Ltelephonelastnight?canThediffefe羹cebetweentheselasttwobeexplainedintermsofadifferentpresuppositions:somebodysuggeststhatthespeakerexpecteddoescall,whereasanybodytelephonenot-3.2.1.4Hedgesense.LakoffinsomefuzziermakethingsBvdefinition,allhedgesdeftnesitasaawordorphrasewhosejobistomakethingsfuzzier”itas“af1972:195).BrownandLevinson(1987:150)regardphrasethatmodifiesthedegreeofaparticle,word,phraseinamemberofapredicateornounset.Itsaysofthatmemberthatispartial,ortrueonlyincertainrespects,ortrue氇基itismoreandcompletethanperhapsmightbeexpected。”Thepragmaticvaguenesscausedbyhedgesis‘‘alinguisticreflexofspeakinguncertaintyormoreprecisely,ofamarkedcommitmentonthepartZiran,toofthespeakertothetruthoftheprepositionthatheis1996:72).Asaconveying”(Herule,hedgescarlbeclassifiedintotwotypes:hedgesusedorreducethedegreeoftruthvaluesuchastoaltertherelatedscopeofanutterance,sortof,kindof,somewhat,really,almostquite,alittlebit,etc,andtheotherkindofhedgesusedbythespeakertojudgesubjectivelytowhatissaidortoaccessindirectlywhatissaid,accordingappear,seem,tend,Isomeobjectiveevidence,suchasthink(wonder,believe,assume,one'ssuppose),I'mafraid,as/so弦,.asIknow,accordingtoestimates,etc.Inthedialogues,textsandotherreadingmaterialsinJtmior/SeniorEnglishforChina(JEFC/SEFC),there徇A.Youreallyshouldaremanysuchexamples.sortoftryyourbest.B.I'mkindofconfused.to{7)so如asIknow,it'sfree.倒Iboughtthisblouseherelastweek,butthereseemsbesomethingwrongwithit.(9)Anyhow,Iamafraidtheimplicationsofthesetwotermsaresomewhatdifferent.Examples(6)一(9)makeuseof“sortof”,“kindof”,“SOfarasIknow”,“seems”and“somewhat”tObetterhidethespeaker'sinefficiencyandinadequacyinsomeregard。ThesehedgingwordsCallmitigatetheassertivedegreeofspeechundertheconditionsofinquiry,assessmentandmoreandobjectivejudgement,thereforesavinghisface。leavingsomeleewayforthespeaker3.2.2SyntacticStrUCtUresAnotherpolitenesslinguisticrealizationissyntacticstructures.Somestructuresareculturallyspecific。Forexample,Chinesepeopleoftenaskthequestions“Haveyoutoeaten?’’“Whereareyougoing?”etc.asthegreetingsasshowthespeaker’Swarmth.Suchstructuresmayberegardedtheimpositionoftheaddressee’SfreedominEnglish。Ontheotherhand。anEnglishspeakeroftensays“Thankyou”asanappreciationwhenhereceivesacompliment,thishasareavalueof“nomodesty”inChinese.Someothertensestructureslinguisticallyspecific.Let’Stakeandvoiceforexample.3.2.2.1IeFlseTheEnglishandChineselanguageshavemanydifferenceswithregardtothesyntacticstructures.OneofthemisthatEnglishhassomeinflectionswhileChinesehasnoinflections.Intermsofpoliteness,thesimplepastaretenseandtheprogressiveaspectofverbsoftenrepresentationsofpolitenessinEnglish.TheinflectionsofawordlikethesimplepasttenseCanbepolitenessmarkers.Pleaselookatthefollowingexamples:(10)A:Didyouwantme?B:Yes.1wonderedifyoucouldlendmeahelpinghand.ThethenSpeakerAuses‘‘Did…want”insteadof“Do…want’。toofferahelpsimplepasttensehasanessenceofremotenessinpsychologyandindirectnessiSachieved.ItleavesanamoUntofroomforchoicetotheacIdressees。WhileinordertoAtoSpeakerBalsouses“wondered”insteadof“wonder”makehisdemandlessforceful,thenitismorelikelyforaSpeakeracceptit.AllthesehaveSalTlevaluewiththepolitenessprinciple--“don’timpose”.Itisthelintendtoseewiththefollowingpair:yourfather.Iintendedtoseeyourfathernow.(morepolite)tenseAsiSknowntoUS。sometimesthesimplepastaRitudeofthetenseiSrelatedtothespeakerratherthantotime.Inthepairabovethesimplepastshowsmorepolitenessandmodestythanathepresentindefinite.aTheprogressiveaspectofForexample:verbinEnglishisalsopolitenessmarker.(11)Asamatteroffact,we’vebeenhopingyouwillcome,Edith。And1wasexpectingyoutophonemeinanycase.“We’vebeenhoping”and“1wasexpectingyou”haveareavalueofwarmthandkindness。Itreveals壕espeaker'swish,Iftheychangedinto“wehopeanyou”and“Iexpectyou”.thenitsoundsthespeakerisgivingorderinsteadofawish.Thewarmthandkindnesswillalsodisappear.Similarly,comparedwiththesimplepresentform,theprogressiveisamoretentativeandhencemorepolitemethodofexpressingamentalattitude.(12)厂I’mhopingyou’11giveLIhopeyou’11giveAsUSUSsomeadvice。someadvice.aLeech(1971)pointsout,thereisnotionof‘temporariness’and‘possibleincompleteness’abouttheprogressiveform,andinthepresentcontext,itisextendedto‘lackofcommitment’。Ihopeyou71譬如窖锹som8adviceleavestheaddresseelittleroomforpoliterefusal;but1amhopingimpliesthatthespeakerhasnotfinallycommittedhimselfto氆ehope:heisreadytochangehismindabouthisfeelingsshouldthelistener‘sreactionbediscouraging。3。2.2,ZVOlceSomeotherstructm-esarelinguisticallyspecific.Forinstance,inorderusetoavoidaddressingtheagent,Englishpeoplemaythepassiveformtorevealit.Thepassiveissometimespreferredforpsychologicalreasons,Aspeakermayuseittodisclaimresponsibilityfordisagreeableannouncements:Employer:Overtimeratesarebeingreduced/willhavetobereducedTheactivewill,ofcourse,beusedforagreeableannouncements:Iam/Wearegoingtoincreaseovertimerates.Thespeakermayknowwhoperformedtheactionbutwishtoavoidgivingthenalrle。Tom,whosuspectsBillofopeninghisletters,may"saytactfully:砀括letterhasbeenopened?insteadofYou'reopenedthisletter,Englishpeopletendtooruseimpersonal,inanimatethings,abstractideas,impersonal“it”assubjects.toact(13够isgenerallyconsiderednotadvisableThespeakerusuallyconveysthatway.1{issuggestedthatthehouseshouldberepairedsoon.allideaofpolitenessbyusingthepassivewhenhescoldstheother.Forexample,A.Youusedastonetobreakmywindow.That≮goingtoofar.toofar.BinsteadofA.B.Astonewasusedtobreakmywindow.That台goingWhensomeonebrokeTheyourWindowwithastone,youusepassiveinSentenceBmakesthescoldingindirect,hencemoreacceptable.3.2.23lnterrogativeSentences1)Tag—questionsAtag-questionisusedattheendofasentence,toaskforconfirmationofsomethingwearenotsureabout,ortoaskforagreement。Itmeanssomethinglike‘Isthistrue?’or‘Doyouagree?’Forexample:Weneedn’twaitforhim,needwe?lcouldtryagain.couldn'tI?Politeenquiriesandrequestsstatementfollowedbyaareoftenmadebyusinganegmivetag—question.Youhaven’tgotanylettersforme,haveyou?Youhaven‘tseenasmallblackcatanywhere,haveyou?TheimperativesfollowedbyWillyou?Won'tyou?WouMyou?Can2you?andCouMyou?arealsopolitenessmarkers.Thesearenotrealquestions;氇eymeansomethinglikeplease.(14)Dositdown,won’tyou?Pleasekeepcalm,willyou?Openthedo跳Can’tyou?areSimilartag—questionsareshallwe,mayj.cani,don7youthink?Theyusedforthesakeofpoliteness.Forexample:,啦Iright?The栅叭一一cla88’馕跫刚2)NegativequestionsNegativeauestionsareoftenusedininvitationsandexclamation.Theyoftensuggestthattheanswer“yes”isexpected(Swan,1980)・Forinstance:Won’tyouWon’tyoucomeinforaminute?havesomemorecakes?seeDidn’tyougoandHelenyesterday?Howisshe?canHowever,negativequestionsnotalsosuggestsurprisethatsomethingiscarlbeingdone,orhasnothappened.Thissurprisetexts.soundcritical.ManysuchstatementswillbefoundintheIsn’titeasiertostayinthesameplace?Can。tyoujustwearflowers?Haven’tyougotanylettersforme?(=I'myouhaven’tgivenmesurprised--evenannoyed--thatuseanyletters.)orTomakepoliteenquiriesrequests,weusuallyotherstructures;forexample,ordinaryquestions.Haveyougotanylettersforme?3)InterrogativeAccordingface-threateninggoonasentencestomakethespeechactsindirectactsaretoBrownandLevinson,manyspeechpotentiallyacts(FTAs).Thus,ininterpersonalcommunications,ifwerecordasaskingforsomethingfe.g.youwanttoasksomeonetolendyoustapler.),theimperativeafordoubtthatthisisourform(LendMedirective.Wecoulduseonyourastapler)leavesrioroomface—savingact,byphrasingrequestinsuchtoawaythatarethesurfacetheotherpersonisnotdirectlycanorderedperform.Heretwoexamples:Gottastapleryoulendme?orandCouldyoulendmeyourstapler?Bythismeans,eitherpositivefacenegativefaceissaved(Peccei,2000:65).Therefore,onewaytomakethespeech1)WarningHowaboutouractindirectandpolitemaybeusinginterrogativesentences.QuestionsCanbeusedfor:planfortoday?2)SuggestionDoyouthinkit’Sagoodideato…?3)DisagreementDoyoureallythinkthisisthecase?4、CriticismHasn’tAlberttelephonedyet?510rderWillyoudothatformerightnow?61RequestsCanyoupassmetheTakesalt?(ChenanRong,1989)6)forexample.ManylinguistsproposeinterestinganalysesofCanindirectrequest,butissentencethetheirmesalt?Inopinion,theyoupassitdoesn’thavetheformofimperatives,insteaditisinterrogative(Saeed,2000:215).That'stosay,thespeakerdoesn’taskwhetherthehearerhastheabilitytopassthesalt,yetrequiresthatthehearerpassthesalt.Somecarlindirectspeechactsbefoundinthefollowingexamples:Whydon’twegototheseashore?(ibid)inyourfleeclass?Whycan'tyoudosomethingaboutit?HaveyouconsideredusingthelabWhataboutgoingtoFrancethissummer?areThesesentencesareallinterrogative.TheymorepolitethanIsuggest砌atwe(yo训…berepresentedinonePolitenesscarlinrealizeditislargelyways,butmanyaislanguage。Politenessofthemostimportantmessagesintext・andlinguisticallyisalsoisculturallyuniversal,itAlthoughpolitenessparticular.Onconditionthatmessage,wewillbeablewe:Paymuchattentiontothepolitenesstocarryonmoresuccessfulcommunications・OhapterFourinApplicationofPolitenessStrategiesELICIassAshasbeendiscussedintheprecedingsection,mostspeechactsarepotentiallyface—threateningacts(FTAs),thus,anyrationalagentwillseektoavoidtheseFTAs,orwillemploycertainstrategiestominimizethethrees.Inotherwords,hewilltakeintoconsiderationtherelativeweightingsof(atleast)threewants:(a)thewantthewanttobetocommunicatethecontentofthetoFTA,(b)efficientorurgent,and(c)thewantgreatermaintainthehearer(H)’Sfacetoanydegree.Unless(b)isthemeansemployedathan(c),thespeaker(S)willallwanttominimizethethreatofhisFTA.Politeness,inasinteraction,canthenbedefinedtoshowawarenessofanotherperson’Sface.Then,avoidingactsface-threateningactisaccomplishedbyfacesavingorwhichInusepositivenegativepolitenesstoexplorestrategies(Yule,2000:64).thischapter,weattempthowthepolitenessstrategies(PS)areappliedbyteachersinclassroominteractions.41ApplicationofVerbalPoIitenessStrategiesTheskillfulemploymentofpolitenessstrategiesisessentialeffectivefaceworkvariousfacetoateacher’SmanagementinELTclassrooms.Sincethelearnershaveusewantsinclass,theteacherneedstothreedistinctpolitenessstrategiesaccordinglytomaintainthefaceofthestudents.Onthebasisofanumberofauthors’delineationofpolitenessstrategies,wenowattempttointroducethreemaincategoriesofPSfrequentlyusedbyELTteacherswhichrunasfollows:positivePS,negativePS,andoff-recordPS.4.1.1PositivePolitenessStrategiesPositivepolitenessisorientedtowardthepositivefaceofH,thepositiveself-imagethatheclaimsforhimself.Itemphasizestheneedforassociation.Thefirstpositivepolitenessstrategyistoclaimcommongroundwiththeotherperson.Thisisaccomplishedbyconveyingtheideathattheteacherandlearnersareconnectedbyvirtueofhavingsomethingincorn_rnon(e.g.30groupmembership,similarityofinterests,values,attitudes).Anextremelyaimportantfeatureofcommongroundissharedperspective.Thus,theyoftenstrivetofindagreementwitheachotheratsomelevel.Evenwhendisagreeingagreement.Asecondtheymayseekpointsofagreementbydisplayingtokenmajorstrategyistoclaimassociationbyvirtueofthefactthattheteacherandlearnersare,insomesense,cooperators.Thus,theteachermayindicateawarenessofandconcemforthelearners’positivefacewantsorconveyapromisethataddressesthelearners’positiveface.Cooperationcanalsobeconveyedwithoptimism,astrategythatagainnicelyreflectsthedifferencebetweennegativeandposkiveface.Athirdandfinalpositivestrategyissimplytofulfillthelearners’wantsinsomeway,directtyandsubstantially,ratherthansymbolically.Wecanseesomeexamplesbelow:cotnInon(1)Claiminggroundbetweenteacherandstudents:Attendingtostudents:YoumustbetiredHowabouttakingashortbreak?It'sreallyquitedi渗eultforyou.Usingin—groupidentitymarkers:Keepsilent,mychildren?}嘞comeSO酝织myfellows?Exaggeratingapproval,sympathy,etc:Hedidawonderfuljob.Verygood!Avoidingdisagreement:Anywayyou'vefoundtheway.0耄that咎youranswertothequestion.Assumingagreement:So,whatareyougoingtodonext?itthen.We'llbediscussingHedgingopinions:I'mafraidyou'renotquiteright.(TangYanyuetc.,2003)1wouldsuggestthatyoupracticemoreafterclassnbid)PresupposingS'swants:Won'tyouhaveanothertry,ZhouDoyouwanttosayLan.tsomethingelse?(2)ConveyingcooperationbetweenTandS:PresupposingS'sfeeling:Iknowitseemsmoreattention!alittlebittedious.butactuallyitisinteresting-doPayYoufeelupset,right?Well,it'sBeingoptimistic:You'lltryyourbest,right?l'msurenothingandtrytocalmdown.youcansettletheproblembyyourself.IncludingbothTandS:Wewillhaveadiscussionnow.(XuHng,20D引Let'scomeparticularlytotheseconditem.(ibid)4.1。2NegatiME=PoIItenessStrateglesNegativepolitenessisorientedmainlytowardpartiallysatisfiying(redressing)H’Sandnegativeface,hisbasicwanttomaintainclaimsofterritorynegativeself-determination.HencepolitenessiScharacterizedbyself-effaceme鸥formalityaspectsandrestraint,withattentiontoveryrestrictedonofH'sself-image,centeringhiswanttobeunimpeded.Itemphasizestheneedfordissociation.Themostfrequentnegativepolitenessstrategyistobeconventionallyindirect.Conventionalindirectformscanbeperformedbyquestioningorassertingthefelicityconditionsunderlyingt11eact.Asecondstrategyistoavoidpresumingorassuminganythingregardingthelearners’beliefsistouseordesires。孙eprimarymeansforaccomplishingthisthehedgingdevices.useAthirdstrategyinvolvesattemptstolessencoercion.Thisincludestheofsubjective,tagquestions,andremotepossibilitymarkers。Additionalstrategiesdirectedtowardthelesseningofcoercionincludeattemptstominimizetheimposition.TeachersCanalsolessencoercionbyhumbling32themselvesandgivingdeference.Afourthstrategyisexplicitlythattheteacherdoesnotwanttoimpingeontocommunicatecanthelearner.Thisbeaccomplishedbyprovidinganaccountorapologyandtherebyindicatingreluctance,admittingtheimpingement,oraskingforforgiveness.Anotherrelativelycommonstrategyistolinguisticallydissociatetheinteractantsusefromtheto—be—performedact.Examplesincludeavoidingtheof“I”and‘‘you”pronouns,andbyusingpassiveratherthanactiveconstructions.Thefinalstrategyistosimplygoanyindebtednessononrecordasincurringadebtorbydisclaimingthepartofthelearners.Followingaresomeexamples:(1)BeingI'mconventionallyindirect:lookingforanotheranswer.carefulthinking.coercingS:Thisquestionneedsmuchmore(2)NotBeingpessimistic,uncertain:Couldyoudoit?willtherebeanobjectiontoyou?Minimizingtheimposition:WouMyoumindcleaningtheclassroomqfierschool?Ijustwanttoaskyouifyoucouldlendmeatinybitofpaper.(QianHousheng,2002)(3)CommunicatingApologizing:adesirenottoimposeonS:1)Admittingimposition:I'dliketoaskyouabigfavorI'msorW.tointerruptyou.2)Indirectreluctance:Idon'twanttobotheryou,but…Inormallywouldn'taskyouthis,but,.,Obia)Impersonalizing:/t蠡necessarythat…Itisnotpossibleyou矗b扬d^Usingpassives:Itisregrettedthat…(ChenRong,1989)tomorrow,ifitto…?canTurninthecompositionbedone.Ohid)Usingindefinites:Istheresomeonewho’dlikeOneshouldalwayslistentowhatotherpeoplehavetosay.(Swan,1980)Pluralizingpronouns:Wehavetoinformyou’‘。Come,we'llhaveanothertry.Usingdistance:1wonderedifyoucoulddomethat。・。alittlefavorIhavetoinformyouStatinggeneralrules:Latecomerscannotcomeinwithoutateacher'spermission.TheregulationNominalizing:Iamsurprisedsaysitisnotpermittedtosmokehere.atyour向iluretoreply.(QianHousheng,2002)afternoon.Thedecision妇—yo甜handinthetermpaperthis4。1.3Off—recordPoII七enessStrategIesOff-recordpolitenessstrategiesmakinganyexplicitfeatureOraretheindirectstrategiesthatavoidonunequivocalimpositionlearners.Thedefiningofoff-recordformsistheirambiguityandhencedeniability.Linguisticrealizationsofoff-recordstrategiesincludemetaphorandirony,rhetoricalquestions,understatement,tautologies,allkindsofhintsaastowhatspeakerwantsormeanstocommunicate,withoutdoingSOdirectly,SOthatthemeaningistosomedegreenegotiable(BrownandLevinson,1978).BrownandLevinson(1978)adoptedtheGriceanframeworkforcategorizingoff-recordstrategies;hence,strategiestoCanbegroupedaccordingthespecificmaximthatisviolated。ThusviolationsofthequalitymaximSOresultinsarcasticirony,metaphor,rhetoricalquestions,andon。Violatingthemannermaximcanresultintheuseofeuphemismsandvaguenessregardingtheface.threateningact(e.g.1wonderwhoforgottodothehomework.)Violationsofthequantityresultinunderstatement(e.g.“It’sOK”asaless—than—positiveresponsetocanawronganswerlandoverstatement・Violatingthemaximofrelationoccurinavarietyofways.Inmanyacontexts,simplyraisingserveanissuewillconstituterelevanceviolationandatotriggeradirectiveinterpretationfe.g.“It’Snoisy.”ascanrequestforspeakerisinthiswaysilence).Therelationmaximalsobeviolatedwhenarespondingtoquestionsthatarepotentiallyface—threatening,andaface—threateninginformationcanbeconveyedinpositiveway.are:SomemoreexamplesappliedinELTclassroomsGivinghints:h'snoisyinclass.Youareusingaratherbigwordhere.(XutTng,2003)Understating:.锄e'sreallyembarrassedthenmaybe.It'snothalfwrong.hundredtimes,butnobodynoticedit。oneOverstating:1havementionedaItisthemostexcellentI'veeverseen.Beingironic:/t'snotreallybadItseemsyouareaa8itwasthen.realgenius.Usingrhetoricalquestions:Whyhaven'tyoucomeearlier?HowmanytimesdoIhavetotellyou…?(QianorHousheng,2002)Beingvagueambiguous:Perhapssomeonedidsomethingnaughtily.Ob趔Youcanfindtheanswersomewhere.classroomobservation,wehavefoundthatteachersemployanInourdistinctpolitenessstrategiestomitigateundesiredorunwantedidentityfollowinganundesirablebehavior.Theyminimizeexplicitexposureofforanswerslearnersinseveralopportunitiesways:bybyprovidingwronglearnerstocorrecttheirownmistakes,bygivinghintstohelplearnerssequentiallyresponsesbypreceptorasformulateappropriateassessments,andbytreatingwronglearnersaasreasonable.Forexample,“Isuppose’’usedbytotheahedgethatmitigatesthethreatlearners’faceoftherecommendationthatitmodifies.Thepracticesofgentlycorrectingmaybetiedatoaconcernwithprotectingthelearners’face.Andsuchpracticesreflectconcernforlearningbydiscoveryratherthanbydirecttutelage.Thissurveyofpolitenessstrategiesdemonstratesbothformsandfunctionofverbalalternatives.Wethenfindcertainfeaturesoflinguisticstructureorcanreadilyaccommodateteachers’needsformitigatingredressingFTAstoaresothelearnerswhentheyhaveto.Thedevicesadoptedbytheteachersusefulthattheyplayallimportantroleintheclassroomteaching.4.2AppIicatiOnofNonverbalInPoIitenessStrategiestheprevioussectionwehaveemphasizedteacher’Spolitenessstrategiesinverbalinteraction,andyetwerealizethatmuchclassroomcommunicationalsotakesplacewithouttheuseaofwords.Suchnonverbalclassroomcommunicationformsinvolvea11thosenonverbalstimuliinsettingthataregeneratedbytheteacherandthathavepotentialmessageorvaluefortheteacherthelearners。asuseNonverbalpolitenessstrategiesmightbethoughtofanyformofcommunication,whichspeechandareisnotdirectlydependentontheoflanguage.use.OurSuchnonverbalaspectsofpolitenessstrategiesmostoftenaccompanypartandparceloftheverbalsystemoflanguagepurposeinusingthiscategoryissimplytocallattentiontothefactthatmanyaspectsofclassroomactivitydependuponformsofcommunicationwhichcannotbeeasilytranscribedintowordsandyetarecriticaltoourunderstandingofteachers’PSinclass.ThesenonverbalformsofPSappliedinanELTclassroomwouldincludeeyecontact,facialexpression,intonationandevensilence.4.2.1EyeContactcanThenumberofmessagesweisfoundthatteachers’eyesendwithcanoureyesisalmostlimitless.ItservecontactmainlysiximportantcommunicationfunctionsinELTinterest,andregulateclass:(1)toindicatedegreesofattentiveness,arousal;(2)toinfluenceattitudecommunicatecontent.changesandpersuasion;(3)toconflicts;andinteraction;(4)toaemotions;(5)toavoid(6)tomaintainharmoniousAsweallknow,friendlyeyecontactmaygivetheimpressionofbeingrespectful,trustworthyimpressionconsciouslyofuseorintimate,whereascoldeyecontactmaymakeandomination,intimidation,orpositiveorcontempt.Sototeacherslearners’negativeeyecontactanmanageface-needsinclass.SinceeyecontactissuchindirectchannelthatCanconveyteachers’realmeaningandminimizepressurewhichbringslearnersindiscomfortandembarrassment,itbecomesanimportantformofPSappliedinthecontextofanELTclass.4。2.2FaciaIExpressionsaFacialexpressionsofteacherplayacrucialroleinoranEFLclassroomforthepurposeofpromotinginterpersonalgroupharmony.oneAteacher'ssmileiscaseailinfluential“language”inclass.Thesmileinwhatisfeltasaisbeingusedtocaseusecoveroverpotentialproblem;intheotheroftenitiSUSedtodirectlyshowsatisfaction.Insuchcases,teachersasasmilesnaturalmeanstoencourageinterpersonalharmony,andthenlearnersCanunderstandwhatitiSlikely协occurwhenthereiSsomedisruptionofthisharmony.Also,theteacherintonesthewords“yes”,“no”,“really”,and“OK”inawidevafietyofstyles(ironic,sarcastic,interested,reluctant,enthusiastic,expressionssuchasdisinterested,etc)accompaniedbyotherfacialshowingThefrowning,angerllseanddisappointment.canoffacialexpressionswithoutlanguagehelpthelearnersunderstandtheteacher'sfeelings,moodsandattitudes;inturn,theteachercanemployappropriatefacialexpressiontoencourage,commendorevenwarnthelearners’activitiesinclass42.3lntonationThesoundswegenerateoftencommunicatemorethanthewordsaproduce.Theriseandfallofvoicesmayexpressoraperson’Sangegsorrow,joy,cuesnumberofanyotheremotions.Whateverthecancase.certainvocalprovideinformationwithwhich1earnersmakeiudgmentsabouttheindividuals’emotionalstatesandrhetoricalactivity.aHi曲orarousalrisingpitchofteacher’Sintonationsignalshisororherinterest.andincompleteness,whilelowfallingpitchsignalsabsenceofinterestandhencefinalityandrest.Thisfundamentaloppositionbetweenhighandlowpitchesisclearlyseenintheteacher’Suseofpitchrangeofasobviouslyemotionalexpression:araisedvoiceforactiveemotionssuchsatisfactionorsurpriseandaloweredvoiceforboredom,sadnessandtheaslike.Also,bychoosingmidkey,theteacherispresentinghisutterancethoughitisnotcontrastivetothelearners’expectation,hencemakingitlessface-threateningandsociallymoreacceptable.Inrelationtoaboveissues,weknowthatintonationisanotherlinguisticdeviceortoexpressateacher‘Sdifferentattitudesorandfeelingstowardlearnersthesituationthatheshementions.4.2.4SI{enceAnAfricanproverbstates.“SilenceiSalsospeech.”WecontendthatsilencesendsUSnonverbalCUeSconcerningthecommunicationsituationsincueswhichweparticipate.Suchsilencetranscendmeverbalchannelandoftenrevealwhatspeechisconcealed.AfterobservingthestrategicallyemployedbybeapoignantcansilenceindeedanEFLteacher,weknowthatsilencepowerfulmessageinclassroomteaching.cuesSilenceinoraffectinterpersonalcommunicationbyprovidinganintervalanongoinginteractionduringwhichthelearnershavetimetothink,checkansupposeemotion,encodealength)-response,orinaugurateanotherlineofthought.Silencealsohelpsprovidefeedback,informingboththeteacherandlearnersoftheclarityofanideaorofitssignificanceinanoverallinterpersonalexchange.Themagnificenceofsilenceininterpersonalrelationshipsisitsambiguity.Assilenceisencoded,itcanmeananything.Thusateacher’Ssilencecuesmaybeinterpretedasanevidenceofagreement,lackofinterest,injuredfeelingsorcontemptaccordingtotheteachingcontentattheverymoment.Ashasbeenmentionedabove,agreatnumberofthecriticalmeaningsgeneratedinclassroomencountersareelicitedbyglance,facialexpressions,vocalnuance,gestures,orsilencewithorwithouttheaidofwords.NonverbalPSencompassesmorethanoneclassroomactivity,anditisnotlimitedtoonesetofmessages.ItissubtletothestudyofclassroominteractionsbecauselearnerscarlusesuchactionstolealTlabouttheirteacher’Saffectiveoremotionalstate;andalSOtheteacherscanadoptittocomplementandregulatetheirteaching.ChaptermpIementationFiveoftheStudyThisstudystartswithabriefdiscussionoftheresearch,andthenareintroducestheprocessofdatacollection.ThedatafromthisstudyconfirmtheappropriatenessoffaceconcernsusedtoandpolitenessphenomenainEFLclassrooms.ThesedataalsohaveapplicationsforEFLteachersintheirteachingprocess.5.1DesignoftheStudyOverthepastfeWdecades。therehavebeennumerousresearchesintoFace-savingeverTheoryandPolitenessPrinciple.However,fewscholarshavesteppedintotheapplicationofpolitenesstheoriestoEFLclassroomsintosecondaryschools.Therefore,weseekconductourcurrentstudybyquestionnairesbothforEFLteachersandlearners.5.1.1ObjeotiyesThepurposesofthisstudyare≤a)tomakeacaseforthecontributioncreateresearchintoteachers’concernsandpracticeinEFLclassrooms,(b)toharmoniousrelationshipbetweenteacherandlearners,andimprovelearners’pragmaticcompetence.5.1.2SubJectsare弧esubjects435hi}gh—schoolagestudentsenrolledduringtheautumnsemestersof2002and2003,and40teachersprovidinginstructionintheseschools.TheteachersandstudentsarelocatedintwohighschoolsinChangshaCity,HunanProvince.Amongthem,No。llMiddleSchool,akeySchoolliesinmiddleSChool,liesinYuhuaDistrict,whileFurongDistrict,anditisNo.29髓ddleanordinarysch001.However,bothschoolshavecurriculumapproaches.ThestudentsinthiscommonentryassessmentandstudytypicallyreceiveEFLinstructionforatleastfouryears,someevenlonger(aslongassevenyears).Butmany40ofthemhaveverylimitedintensiveneedandinEnglish.TheyunderstandingspeakingproficiencyEnglishinstruction.Altogether40teachersand435learnersparticipatedinthestudyandallparticipantsremainedanonymousinthestudy.Theteacherstorangedfrom2160yearsofage,andlearnersrangedfrom15to19yearsofage.Amongtheseparticipants.54.9%arefemaleand45.1%aremale.5.1.3lnstrumentsTwodatacollectionandinstrumentsareusedinthestudy:Teachers’atcollectingthefactsQuestionnaireLearners’Questionnaire.TheyaimanandperceptionsabouttheapplicationofPSinareEnglishclassroom.Theydifferentinthewordingofquestionstosuittheinterviewee,thatistosay,areteachersareaskedaboutthestrategiestheyuse,whilestudentsaboutstrategiestheyobserveteachersuse.ThesecommentsareaskedimportantbecausetheywillhelpUSimprovetheunderstandingofteachers’PSinEFLclassrooms,andthenachievesuccessfulEnglishteaching.§。{,4ProceduresThegeneralapproachusedinthisstudyishigh-schoolEFLteachersandstudentsontousecollectinterviewdatafromofpolitenessstrategiesforthelanguagelearningactivitiesintheclassrooms。Theprocedureadoptedconsistsoftwoparts.Theteachers’questionnaireiSadministeredtocoverdifferentaspectsofteachers’perceptionofothertheitsandside,inoperation。Onpolitenesslearners’questionnaire,respondentsareaskedtoidentitythefactoftheirteachers’PSapplicationandtheirattitudestowardit.5.2AnalysisofthelnstrumentsAquestionnaireformatisusedtoinvestigateobjectives.Allarerespondentswereaskedtorecallwhat1earners’face.wantsinEFLclassroomsandteachers4politenessstrategiessupportlearners’face。52.1Componentsofleachers7QuestlonnaIreThequestionnairesweredeliveredto40teachers,andallofthemwerereturned,thatis,100%responseratehasbeenobtained.Theteachers’questionnaireisdesignedtoreveal(a)theirconcerneffectsofPSonforthelearners’face,(b)theirEFLteaching.currentapplicationofPS,(c)theSection1containsmultiple—choiceitemsrequiringparticipantstochooseanitemwhichindicatestheiranswertothequestion.Section2containsfive—pointscaleitemsrequiringteacherstoevaluatetheirpracticeofPSinEFLclassrooms.Altogether,thequestionnaireismadeupof15items,sixofwhichmultiplechoicesandnineofwhichagree”to“stronglyarearescaleditemsrangingfrom“s订onglydisagree”(i.e.stronglyagree=l,agree=2,noview=3,disagree=4,stronglydisagree=51.5.2.2ComponentsofLearnerS’QuestionnaireThequestionnairesweredeliveredto461learners,and435returnedthequestionnaires,thatis,94。4%participantsgavetheirresponseinthes搬dy.Thelearners’questionnaireisdesignedintoinvestigate(a)theirface—wantsclass,(b)thecurrentapplicationofPSbyortheirEFLteachers,(c)theirreactionandfeedbacktogaininglosingface.tOSection1containsmultiple—choiceitemsrequiringparticipantsanchooseitemwhichexactlyindicatestheiranswerrequiringlearnerstoassesstheirexperienceofteacher‘SPSinEFLclassrooms。Liketheteachers’questionnaire,itisalsomadeupof15items,sixofwhicharemultiplechoicesandnineofwhichareSCaleditemsrangingfrom“stronglyagree’to“stronglydisagree”.5.3ResuItsBothquestionnairesarethemajorinstrumentsforcollectingdataofthePSapplicationinEFLclassrooms。ThereforetheresultsobtainedwillbepresentedatfulllengthinthenexttWOsections.4253.1AnalysiSofleacherS’QuestIareonnaIreOfalltherespondents4male,makingup10%and36arearefemale,makingup90%.8atthepercentageof20undertheageof30;t6atthepercentageof40arebetweentheageof31-40;8atthepercentageof20arebetween41and50yearsold;and8atthepercentageof20asaareovertheageof50.Astotheirlengthofserviceteacher,7.5%havebeenteachingforover5—10years,37.5%for11—20years,40%for20years,and15%forlessthan5years.Asfarastheiracademictitlesareconcerned.62.5%oftheteachersholdtheprofessionaltitleoflecturers,thehighestpercentageinthiscategory;17.5%ofthemassistants.areassociateprofessors.and20%ofthemareThedatawerecollectedthroughHuanga15一itemquestionnaire.revisedfromQing(2003),categorizedintothreemajorclasses:teachers’awarenessofleamers’face.theirpracticeofPSinEFLclassroomsandtheeffectsofPSapplication.弧eresultsarepartiallypresentedintabularform。PresentedherearetheresultsforsomeitemsbeginningwithItem1.Tablel:ReasonforLearners’LackiofMotivationOpt.0珏SABItem1CDIWhatisthemainreasonforleamers’|lackofmotivationinEnglishclass?TeachersarelO%reason62。5%iSfor22。5%5%askedwhatthemainlearners’lackofmotivationinEnglishclass.Asisshown.22.5%oftheparticipantspointout也雏itiStheirfearofmakingmistakesandlosingface;62。5%thinkitiSbecauseoftheirpoorfoundationinEn露ish,and10%believetheyareinterested.BrownnotandLevinson1istfifteenpositivestrategies,twoofwhichare“exaggerateinteresf’and“intensifyinterest'’。InELT,theteacherclaimscommongroundsbetweenteacherandlearnersbyseekingagreement,sharinginterestsandtreatingthemasmembersofanin—groupandfriends.Insatisfied.thisway,thestudents’positivefacesareTable2:Teachers’AwarenessofLearners’Face43f}I|Items2and6FrequentlyAreyouOptionsSometimesSeldomNeverlawareoflearners’jhopeforface—saving?65冁32.5%2.5%lAreyoufrequentlyawareof}learners’facewant?BothItems2and6focus2whenaskedwhethertheyOil87。墨%lO%//。2;S%teachers’awarenessoflearners’face。InItemawareoflearners’hopeforface—savingareduringtheteachingprocess,65%ofteacherparticipantsindicatethat魄eyfrequentlydot11at,32.5%sometimesandonly2.5%seldom.InItem6,87.5%oftheparticipantsarefrequentlyawareoflearners’face。wants.1O%neversometimes,andonly2。S%areconditionthatteachersconcernedwiththelearners5face.OnConcernarethemselveswiththestudents’poise,嚣i&,faceandcredibility,theylikelytodosomethingtosarisfytheirstudents’needs,Ontheotherhand。theresultsofItem7revealsthat87。5冁oftheteachersthinkthatlearnerscaremuchabouttheirimagesandpositioninothers’eyes,2。5%havenoidea,but2.5%don’tthinkSO.翻enextanalysisisforteachers'PS穗翘EFLclassroom.Threeitemsareaccountingfor20%arediscovered.InItem5,participantsaskedwhatisthestrategytheyoftenemployinthetimetheyhavetothreatentheirstudents,face。40%ofthemexplaintotheirstudents,52.5%trytOminimizetheface.threatandonly7.5%areindefinite.Item3investigatesteachers+attitudestowardstudents’mistakesinclass.Inthisitem,22.5%oftheparticipantspointthemthemtoanswertheywillpointoutOUtthemistakesimmediately,32.5%individuallyafterclass,and45%indicatetheywillguidesolvetheproblemspatiently.TheresultsofItem4revealthatallthewillencouragetheirstudentsparticipantsareandgivethemsupportswhentheyintroublewi氇氇eEnglishstudy.Accordingtotheareasinthequestionnaire,specificresultsarefound.toprovideailTheinformationinTable3attemptsofPSonall—roundviewofeffectsteachingandlearning。Item10Il121415StronglyAgreeAgreeNoView85%32.5%17.5%62.5%70%10%52.5%7.5%25%20%2.5%5%5%10%7.5%//7.5%42.5%DisagreeS.tronglyDisa面ee2.5%2.5%//27.5%2.5%2.5%///ForItem10,anoverwhelmingmajority(95%)agreedonteachers’praiseandencouragementhaveapositiveeffectstimulatinglearners’motivationinEnglishstudy.Thisisthehighestpointintermsofagreement.Thepercentage(85%)ininterestinface-wants.ItisItem11isalsohighintermsofagreementthelearnerscanOnlearners’learning,andabemotivatedbymeetingtheirasignaltoteachersthatsatisfyinglearners’face.wantsisbasicrequirementforPS.Item12iSthestatement“themaintenanceofharmoniousclassroomatmospherewillnotbeaffectedbytheteachers’useofpolitenessprinciple.”Asforthisitem,thepercentage(70%)ishi曲inusestermsofdisagreement.ResultsofItem14revealthat87.5%oftheteachersholdthebeliefthattheclassroomteachingwhichpolitenessstrategiesisfarofteachers(90%)areasuperiortomatwhichdoesnot.InItem15.theforthegivenstatement“politemajorityofandappropriateteachers’languagehaspositiveinfluenceaupontheimprovementlearners’pragmaticcompetence.”Infeelword,thistablesummarizesthedegreetowhichteachersanabouttheeffectofPSinEFLclassroom.useFromtheabovediscussion,wemaysummarizethatteachersoftenPSwhentheyareWingtoaccomplishsuchgoalsasminimizingtheirconflictswithlearners,stimulating1eamers’motivationinclass,orenhancingtheirsel鼻esteem。Item8。Item9goalsforteachers’applyingPS.Theandkern23attempttoinvestigatesuchpercentage(95%)ofItem8isthehighestintermsofagreementonthenecessityfortheteachersperceivingtheirstudents’mentalityinordertoenhancetheirteaching.AsforItem9,themajorityofteachers疆O%)areforstrategiesshouldthegivenstatementthateffectiveclassroomteaching45satisRstudents・face—wantsthatasmuchas13indicateofItempossible.Resultsare77.5%oftheteachersbelievethattheteacherandlearnersitisacooperators.Andmajorpositivepolitenessstrategytoclaimsomeassociationbyvirtueofthefactthattheteacherandlearnersare.1nsense.cooperators.Thuslearners’positivefacewillbemaintained.Tables1-3revealthattheseparticipantsbelievethatteacherswhoemployPStosarisfylearners’face.needsandarecreatemoreenjoyableandharmoniousinteractionsinEFLclassroomsmorepromisingthanthosewhojustgivethelessontoaccordwiththeteachingplan.SothedemandforteacherstoemploymorePSintheclassroombecomesclearer.5.3.2AnaIvsiSofLearnerS’QuestionnaireOfthereturned435copies,210respondentsaremaleaccountingfor48.3%and225arefemaleaccountingfor51.7%.101copiesofquestionnaireweredistributedamongSeniorOne43respondentsarestudents,and43.9%and98copieswerereturned.aremalemakingup55respondentsfemaleconstituting56.1%.337copiesofquestionnaireweredistributedamongSeniorTwostudents.Oftherespondents.167and170arearemalecomprising49.6%coversfemaleamountingto50.4%.Thisquestionnairethreemainquestions.includinglearners’face.wants.currentissuesofteachers’PSinEFLclassrooms,andaretheeffectsofPSapplication.PresentedheretheresultsforsomeitemsstartingwithItem1.Table4:Learners’FaceWantsOptionsABItem1,2and6Doyouhopefortheteacher’SsupportwhenyouhavetroublewithEnglishstudy?CD20.9%56.3%18.6%4_2%Whatdoyouhopeyourteacherwilldowhen3.2%youmakemistakesinclass?17.7%59.1%20%Whatwillyoudowhenyourteacherfailsto23%sarisfyyourface—wants?40.5%29.4%7.1%InItem1.20.9%oftheparticipantsindicatethattheyfrequentlyhopethattheirteacherswillgivesupportwhentheyhavesomedifficultieswithEnglishstudy,56.3%sometimes.18.6%seldomandonly4.2%neverwanttheirhelp.InItem2,whenaskedwhattheyhopetheirteacherwilldowhentheymakemistakesinclass.3.2%oftheparticipantshopethattheirteacherspaynoattentiontothem.17.7%hopethattheteacherspointoutthemistakesareindirectlyinclass,20%hopethemistakesclassandpointedoutindividuallyafterto59.1%hopethattheteacherguidesthemsolvetheproblemscarepatiently.ResultsofItem6indicatethat23%ofstudentsdonotforwhethertheirteacherssatisfytheirface—wantsaornot.40.5%pointoutthattheywillbeinlowspirits.29.4%willhavenegativeimpressionupontheirteacherand7.1%willexpresstheirdisapprovalinclasswhentheirteachersfailtomaintaintheirface.Thesecondanalysisisforteachers’politenessresultsfromthetablebelowstrategies.WecanseethelItemA34B0ptionsCDl26.1%21.4%33.6%4.6%6。7%71.3%21.1%33.6%2.7%iI536.3%37.1%5.5%Asisshowaaabove.26。1%ofthestudentsindicatethattheirteacheroftenpointsouttheirmischievousbehaviorindividuallyafterclass.33.6%ofthestudentsindicatetheirteacherpointsitoutpublicly,33.6%ofthemwishtheirteachertocorrectitindirectlyandonly6。7%oftheteacherscriticizeare出eirstudentsstrongly.InItem4.studentsaskedtoexpresswhatstrategiestheirteacherwillemploywhenhis/heropinionsareinconflictwithlearners‘.71。3%oftheparticipantsindicatethattheirteacherwillsolvetheproblemtogetherwiththem。21。4%oftheteacherswillpersuadethem幻accepthisorherownopinion.4.6%ofthestudentspointouttheirteacherwillavoidthetopicindiscussion.andonly2.7%ofthestudentsindicatemattheirteacherwillacceptthelearners’opinion。众Sto氇estatementinItem5。36.3%oftheparticipantsindicaremostoftheirteachersintheirformerEnglishstudykeepusingPS,andonly5.5%complainthatfewoftheirteachersemploythestrategiesbyteachersinEFLclassrooms。ThefollowinganalysisisfortheeffectsofPSonlearners+TheresultsareshowninTable6.殛bleItemlOli126:EffectsofPSStronglyAgreeonLearnersAgreeNOViewDisagreeStronglyDisazree38.6%53。8%31.7%36.8%32.2%33.1%16.8%10。1%15.9%5.7%2.3%14.7%2.1%1.6%4.6%13i439,8%59.5%49.3%38,8%28.8%34.7%14.5%8.3%13_3%see4.8%2j%1.1%2.1%1.1%I151.6%on’Ihble6revealsthatlearnersseemtotheeffectsofPSCalltheirlearning.Theselearnersholdth龇teacher'sproperPSstudents’motivationandcreatemorestimulatetheenjoyableandharmoniousatmosphereforEFLclass.75.4%,acomparativelybelievethatteachers’face—savingactslearning.AsforItemcarlhi醣percentage,ofthestudentsincreasetheirinterestsinEnglishll,86%oftheparticipantsfamongthem53.8%strongly)agreethattheirmotivationinasEn斟ishwillbestimulatedonconditionth采氇eteacherconsidersthemcooperators,ForItem12。64.8%oftheparticipantsstatethatmost1earnerscannotboldlyEnglishclassbecauseoftheirfearofmakinganswerquestionsinmistakesandlosingfaceinpublic。ResultsofItem13revealthat78。6%oftheamongthemparticipants(39.8冁canstrongly)agreeforthatthefaceconcernforlearnersincreasetheirconfidenceintheirteachers.FurthermoreinItem14and15.mostoftheparticipants。accounting(amongthem88t3%(59。5%amongthemstrongly)and84%withthegivenstatements.Thusoverall,rolepolitenessstrategiesplayin49.3%strongly)agreetheselearnershaverecognizedtheimportanttheirEFLclassrooms。Asforstudents’attitudestowardteachers’PS,mostlearners拶7%)complainthatteacherscannotemployrelevanteffectivestrategiestoacceleratetheteachingprocessthoughmanyofthemhaverecognizedtheleamerS・face—wants.Ontheotherhand,therearestillmanyteacherswhofailtorecognizethesignificanceofPS.91.8%oftheparticipantspreferteacherswhoaremoreconsiderateoftheirstudents.92.2%oftheparticipantsholdtheviewthatteachersshouldperceivetheirstudents’mentalityprofoundlySOthattheycanemployappropriatestrategiestohelptheirteaching.Tables4.6showthatthese1earnersbelievethatPSapplicationiSsignificantforbothteachingandlearning.ItnotonlyCanstimulatelearners’enthusiasminEnglish,butalsocanacceleratetheteachingprocess.SothedemandforteacherstOadoptmorePSintheclassroombecomesclearer.Altogether,resultsofthequestionnairesurveysrevealthatteachershaverecognizedtheimportanceofnon—conflictteachingcontexttothesuccessfulEFLclassroomcommunications,andemployedappropriatestrategiestobettertheteachingeffects.TheresultsalsoshowthatlearnersexpecttheirmotivationtobestimulatedanddemandtheirteachersshouldachieveamoreeffectiveteachingwithappropriatePS.49ChapterSixmpIicationsTheanalysesintheprevioussectionsshowthatthestudyofpolitenesslanguage,phenomenaandstrategiesplaysschools.TheoutcomeoftheanalyseshaslanguageteachinganimportantroleinsecondaryimplicationsfortheEnglishmanyandlearning.Inthispart,wewillstudytheseimplicationsindetail.1.TeachthestudentshowtouseEngIishidiomatiCexpressionsTeachtheuseofEnglishidiomaticexpressionssuchas‘‘Thankyou”,“I'msorry”,“Itdoesn’tmatter”,“That’Sallright”,“Ofcourse”etc.andcomparetheirusewiththeuseoftheirChineseequivalentstructures.Forexample:asaA,aChineseladywhoworksdoneaasecretaryinatlAmericancompanyhassaystoher:“Thanksverygoodajob,B,herbossfeelsveryhappyandlot.That’Sgreathelp”.Thesecretaryanswers:‘'Nevermind”(HeZiran,1997:206).Evidently,thesecretaryintendstoexpresstheChinesepolitenesssuchas“没关系”or‘‘不用谢”tominimizeherserviceandshowmodesty,butsheadoptsmechanicallytheEnglishexpression‘'Nevermind”.Therefore,pragmaticfailureoccurs,forinEnglish‘'Nevermind’’isusuallytoanaresponseapologyorapoliteformtocomfortsomebody.oftenusedinsteadofyestoconveyanInChinese“当然”isenthusiasticaffirmative(cf:yes,indeed,yes,certainly,inEnglish).OfeoursecanbeusedinthiswayinEnglish:ABAreyoucomingtomyparty?goeswithoutsaying/1wouldn’tmissitforOfthecourse.[Yes,indeed/itworld!]course(Thomas:1985)impliesthatthespeakerhasaskedaboutcanOften,however,ofsomethingthatisinsultinginABself-evident,andsoundatbestperemptoryandatworstanswertoa“genuine”question.Forinstance:IsitopenonSundays?0fcourse.(ibid)50Similarly,inadepartmentifaChinesesalesclerkgreetshiscustomersbya“Whatdoyouwant?”whichiSusedinorChinesecontexttogreetcustomers,theEnglishcustomerswillfeelhewant?”isnot“CallIhelpisasheisveryrude,because“WhatdoyouanequivalentoftheEnglishcustomer-greetingexpressioncanyou?”or“WhatIdoforyou?”Sothesalesclerk’Sutterancepragmaticfailure(HeZiran,1997:206)。Peopleindifferentculturesmayemploydifferentstrategiesinspeechactsinthesamecontext.Inshort,theuseofmanyEnglishidiomaticexpressionsiSdifferentfromthatoftheChineseidiomaticexpressions,althou霸氇eymeanthesameliterally.Moreattentionshouldbepaidtosuchdifferences.2.AttachimportancetypesaretothecommunicatiMefunctionsofthesentenceTraditionally,therethreetypesofsentences:declarative,interrogativeandimperativesentences.Theyhavespecificfunctions.AsCripperandWiddowsonpoint/nout:toforeignteachingthetendencyisassumeareanequationbetweenlinguisticandcommunicativefunction’・"learnersarecommonlymisledintosentencesthinkingthatcommandsuniquelyassociatedwithimperativesentencesandquestionswithinterrogative0995.'202).Infact,asentencestructuremayhavedifferentfunctions.Forexample:(1)Bequiet.(2)Have(3)Giveanothersandwich.USthisdayourdailybreak.areHerethethreeutterancesutteranceimperativesentences,butonlythefirstareanhastheforceoforder,whilethesecondandthethirdofferandarequestrespectively.Ontheotherhand,thesamesentencemayperformdifferentcommunicativefunctions.Thesentence“It’Scoldhere”.forinstance,mayroom,asafunctionasallassertionaboutthephy7sicalatmosphereinasaawarningofnotbringingthebabyin,orrequesttoturnontheheater.Thenwehavealsotolaystressonthecommunicativefunctionofusegrammar.TakethetensesofEnglishforexample,peoplemightthe5lsimplepasttensetodistancetheirrequestpast,reducingtheforceofimpositionoverasiftheactionhappenedinthethehearer,suchas“1wonderedifyoucouldhelpmewiththeluggage.’’Thestructure“be+infinitive”Canasanfunctionasthefutureatenseingrammar,butinpractice,itmaybeusedorderbetweensuper-ordinateandasub—ordinate.Forinstance,themanagerthecontextdiffers.Inmaysaytohissecretary,“You’retobeherebyeight.’’Actually,theEnglishasnativespeakeremploysdifferentgrammaticalformstheELT,ifateachercanteachthestudentsthecommunicativefunctionofgrammaraccordingtothecontext,theywillmakeprogressinEnglishpragmaticcompetencemorequickly.3。Focus0ntheus苛ofapproprjatepoiitenessstrategiconcernesWehavearguedthatteachingEFLshouldlearners’face—wants.TheteachershouldchooseappropriatePStosatisfylearners’faceneeds。Positivepolitenessisorientedtowardthepositivefaceofthehearer(H),thepositiveself-imagethatheclaimsforhimself.PositivePSminimizesthedifferencesandmaximizesthecommonalitiesbetweentheteacherandthelearners。Thus,thisstrategytendstoemphasizethenecessitytrust.touseinformalorintimmelanguage,andcooperate,similarity,sharedfate,andmutualNegativepolitenessischaracterizedbyself-effacement,formalityandrestraint,withaRentiontoveryrestrictedaspectsofH'ssel矗image,centeringonhiswanttobeunimpeded.NegativePSmaximizesthefreedomofactionofthelearnersandminimizestheimpositions氇蘸restricttheirfreedomofaction.Thus,thisstrategyoftenasksforsuggestionsanddirections,avoidsexplicitdirectives,andusespleasandconventionalindirectness.toOff-recordPSischaracterizedbytheeffortunequivocalimpositiononavoidmakingexplicitorlearners。ItsindirectnessisaccomplishedbywaySOon.ofgivinghintsandusingrhetoricalquestionsandStrategicareusesofpolitenessinpersonalinteractionsareprominent.Theyleadingtoanmoreeffectiveindiminishingone’Smisunderstanding,thusexplicitrecognitionofresponsibilityinthecommunication.SoitisessentialfortheteachertousedistinctPSaccordinglytomaintainthefaceofthestudentsandachieveeffectiveteaching.4.PayattentiONtotheEnglIshSOCIalvaluesTraditionally,itisassumedthattheEnglishlanguageteachingistheteachingoflanguageknowledge.Surely,throughofEnglish,welearningaphonetics,linguisticvocabularyandgrammarwillhavegoodcompetenceofthetargetlanguage.Fromthepointofviewofcross—culturalcommunication,however,havingdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatagoodknowledgeofEnglishlanguageonehasacquiredpragmaticcompetenceofEnglish.ThereforetheteachingofEnglishsocialvaluesisveryimportant.Socialvaluesincludepeople’Sperceptionaboutwhatisrightideasaboutwhatisimportantinorwrong,orthelife.Withoutknowingthesocialvaluesofnotliberty,individualismabletoexplainwhy“you’reandanindependenceinEnglishculture,wewillbeEnglishman,whenpraised,says“Thankyou’’orverykind’’orotherresponsesbutnot“where.where’’or“pleasedon’tbother”orothernegativeanswers,tomentionjustafew.HeZiranpointsout,ininteractingwithforeigners,nativespeakerstendtobetolerantoferrorsinpronunciationasorsyntaxbutviolationsofrulesofspeakingareofteninterpretedbadmanners(HeZiran,1988).Totonativespeakers,atogrammaticalerrorappearsanbesuperficialandthehearerisquickrealizeutterancewitherrorsandhasnodifficultyinmakingallowanceforitandthusthereasontocommunicationiSlikelytocontinue,butthehearerhasnotanyaputupwi饿pragmaticfailuremadebypersonwhohasagoodcommandoftheEnglishlanguage.Weadmitthatthesocialvaluesandpolitenessofaculturearecomplicatedandtheirinterferenceinthelanguagemanifestsinvariousways。socialvaluesofItistime—consumingtomasterthem.Forexample,themajorEnglishareareindependenceandliberty.TheirreflectioninEnglishisthattheremanyprivatetopics,directandindirectspeechactsincommunication,SOandon.MostChinesestudentsfindthattheseEnglishculturalfactorstoarethemostdifficultlearn.EvenforateacherofEnglish。heorshesometimesmayfeelithardtoteachthesethingsofELT,onehastotothestudents.However,astoaworkerfacethechallenge。OnehasstudyEnglishandChineseDolitenessandtheirsocialvaluesandtriestofindouttheirdifferencesandsimilarities.Onthewhole,asChina’Sopeninguptotheoutsideworld,thechanceofourcommunicationwimforeignersisincreasing.CorrelationofUSasocialvaluesandlanguageinELTwillgivepeoplecommunicateinEnglishculture.deeperinsightintohowConcfUSlonPolitenessisauniversalphenomenoninspeechcommunication,whichiswhatpeopleofdifferentculturalbackgroundsalltrytoobserveandmaintain.ThisthesistriestomakeastudyofpolitenessintheEFLteachinginsecondaryschoolsbymeansofanalyzingpolitenesslanguage,politenessisinEFLclassrooms.ItofandstrategiesapplicationpolitenessphenomenahopedthatEnglish1earnerswillattachfunctionsimportancethattothecommunicativeskillsincludingofthetargetlanguagebesidesthelanguageandgrammarSOphonetics,vocabularytheywillrecognizetheimportanceofusingthepolitenesspragmaticcompetenceofthetargetlanguageappropriately,andthentheirlanguagewillbegreatlyimproved.Thispaperholdstheviewthatpolitenessvariesincultures.PolitenessinprivacyforonemeaningindifferentcultureiSdifferentfromthatinanother.T,墩eisvaluedinallcultures,buttheapplicableexample.PrivacyascopeofitintheEnglishcultureismuchlargerthanactthatintheChineseofpolitenessintheaculture.Asresultofthis,whatisthoughtofasasanChineseculturemightsimplyberegardedprivacybyaanintrusionuponperson’SnativedifferentrulesofPolitenesscommunicationspeakerofEnglish.Thedissimilarvaluesystemsimposeontheirpeoples.carlbepresentedinmanyways,butitislargelyrealizedbyarelanguage.Thelinguisticrealizationsstructures.Thatissimpletomainlylexicalitemsandsyntacticberealizedbywords,phrases,combinationsofaresay,politenesscarlsentences,complexsentencesandsentencesfdiscourses)。IntheEFLteachinginsecondaryschools,theremanysuchexamples.Themarkers。inclusivewe,hedgingdevices,thesimplepasttense,theevenprogressiveaspectandthepassivevoicecanallbeusedaspolitenessInthisthesis,weseektoexplorehowthepolitenessstrategies(PS)areaappliedbyteachersinclassroominteractions.Onthebasisofnumberofscholars’delineationofpolitenessstrategies,weattempttointroducethreemaincategoriesofPSfrequentlyusedbyEFLteachersasfollows:positivePS,negativePS,andoff-recordPS.Thisstudyisintendedtoexamineteacher。SapplicationofpolitenessstrategiesinEFLclassroomsbymeansofqualitativeandquantitativemethods.Thedatawerecollectedthroughtwoquestionnairesurveys,oneofwhichisteachers’questionnaire,theotherlearners’questionnaire.Resultsofthequestionnairesurveysrevealthatteachershaverecognizedtheimportanceofnon・conflictteachingcontextinthesuccessfulEFLclassroomcommunications,andemployedappropriatestrategiestoimproveteachingeffects。Italsoshowsthatlearnersexpecttheirmotivatio建tobestimulatedanddemandtheirteachersshoulddesignappropriatePS.Besides,weexploretheimplicationsofthepresentstudyforELT,whichinclude:1.TeachtheuseamoreeffectiveteachingwithofEnglishidiomaticexpressionssuchas,‘‘Thankmatter”,“That’Sallright”,“Ofyou”,“I'msorry”,“Itdoesn'tcomparetheirusecourse’’andwiththeuseofsuchChineseexpressionstoas“谢谢”,“当然”,“没关系”;2。Attachimportancesentencetypes;3.Focusonthecommunicativefunctionsofthetheuseofappropriatepolitenessstrategies;4.PayattentiontotheEnglishsocialvalues.簟h远paperdoesnotaimtocoverallaspectsofpolitenessinforeignarelanguageteaching.AnditsideasandargumentationHowever,itisOursincerehopethatthroughsecondaryschoolswecarlafarfrommature.carefulstudyofpolitenessinachieveamoreeffectiveteachingandimprovestudents’communicativecompetence.AppendiXl司尊敬的老师:卷调查下面是一份关于礼貌策略在英语课堂教学中的应用的问卷调查,旨在了解教师对于礼貌策略的使用情况,以便我们进一步研究英语教学。请您根据自己的实际作答,我们负责对您提供的全部情况保密。感谢您的支持与合作!性别:口男年龄:口2卜30岁职称:口中教二级口女口3卜40岁口中教一级口4卜50岁口5卜60岁口中教高级口5—10年从事英语教学的时间:口5年以下口10一20年口20年以上在下面的选题中,请在最接近你个人情况的选项上打“√”。1.你认为不少学生在课堂英语学习中缺乏主动性的主要原因是:A不感兴趣A经常A不予理会B基础太差B偶尔B事后个别指出B不闻不问c怕出错,怕丢面子D没把握c很少C当场指出c不知所措c不采取措施c很少D从不D耐心指导D不确定D不确定D从不2.在组织教学过程中,你是否发现学生希望你尊重其独立性?3.在课堂上发现学生的错误时,你采取何种态度?4.学生在学习中遇到困难需要帮助时,你总是:A鼓励和支持5.在不得已威胁到学生面子的情况下,你通常采取什么措施?A解释说明原因B尽量减少损害A经常B偶尔6.你在课堂教学中是否考虑到学生的面子需求?在下面的选题中请标出最能表明你对所述观点的认可程度的相应数字。(1=十分赞同2=较赞同3=没看法4=不太赞同5=极不赞同)l27.学生很在乎自己在别人心目中的形象和地位。8.为了取得更好的教学效果,教师必须了解学生的心理。345123459.有效的课堂教学应更好地满足学生的面子需求。12345溉教烬的表扬期鼓励能够激发学生的学习主动性。l123451.学生的瑟予需求一量褥剜满足,其学习的兴趣便会随之提高。l234512.教师礼貌言语行为对保持和谐融洽的课堂气氛没有影响。圭234S13.师生关系在某种程度上是一种合作者的关系。l234514.使用了礼貌语言策略的课堂教学比没有使用礼貌语言策略的课堂教学有撬势。l234S15教师礼貌褥体的教学语言对学生语用能力的提高有着积极的影响。】2345AppendixTeachers’QuestiIIonnaireThisquestionnaireisaimedatcollectingyourfactsandperceptionsabouttheapplicationofPSinanEnglishclassroom.Yourcommentsnsonthefollowingitemsareimportantbecausetheywillhelpresearchintoteachers’PSinEFLclassrooms,andthenachievesuccessfulEnglishteaching.Pleasegiveyouropinionshonestlyandwewilltreatyourpersonalinformationincompleteconfidence.Thankyouverymuchforyourco—operationandhelp.Gender:口maleAge:Title:口female口31.40口1ecturer口5.10口41.50口51—60口21.30口Assistant口Associateprofessor口ll一20TeachingYears:口<5口>20Pleasetickanitemtoindicateyouranswerreasontothefollowingquestions.j!讳毋afdoyouthinkthemainEnglishclass?A.Havingnoisforstudents’lackofmotivationininterest.B.Poorfoundation.C。Beingafraidofmakingmistakesandlosingface。D.Havenoassurance.theirface?B.Sometimes.C.Seldom。D.Never.2.Inyourteachingprocess,didyoufindthefactthatyourstudentshopedyouwouldsaveA.Frequentlv.3.Whatwouldyoudowithstudents’mistakesinclass?noA。Topayattention.8。两pointthemoutindividualtyafterclass.C.Topointthemoutimmediately.D.TDguidethemtosolvetheproblempatiently.are4。Whenyo娃fstudentsintroublewiththeirstudy,youwill:A.encouragethemandgivesupport.B.1eavethemalone。C.beatalosswhattodo.D.beindefinite.to5.Whatface?havestrategydoyouoftenemploywhenyouthreatenstudentsA.Explaining.C.TakingnoB.Tryingtominimizethethreatening.action.D.Beingindefinite.6.Areyouawareofstudents’face—wantsinyourclassroominstruction?A.Frequently.B.Sometimes.C.Seldom.D.Never.Pleasecircleanumbertoindicateyourdegreeofagreementwiththefollowingstatements.(1=stronglyagree7.Studentseyes.8.Itiscare2=口g理P3=门oview4=disagreeJ2stronglydisagree)inothers’12345muchabouttheirimagesandpositionnecessaryfortheteacherstotoperceivetheirstudents’mentalityin12345orderenhanceteaching.9.Effectiveclassroomteachingshouldsatisfyasstudents’face-wantsasmuchpossible.1234510.Thepraiseandencouragementstudents’face—wantsoftheteachercarlstimulatestudents’12345motivationintheirEnglishstudy.11.Oncethearerecognized,theirinterestsinlearning12345willbemotivated.12.Themaintenanceofharmoniousclassroomatmospherewillnotbeaffectedbytheteachers’useofpolitenessstrategies.13.Theteacherlanguageandpoliteness12345andlearnersare,insomesense,cooperators.uses1234514.Theclassroomteachingwhichpolitenessstrategiesisfarsuperiorto12345athatwhichdoesnot.15.Politeandappropriateteacher'slanguagehaspositiveinfluenceupon12345theimprovementoflearners’pragmaticcompetence.60AppendiXIII旬各位同学:卷调查下面是一份关于礼貌策略在英语课堂教学中的应用的问卷调查,旨在了解教师对于礼貌策略的使用情况,以便我们进一步研究英语教学。请你根据自己的实际作答,我们负责对你提供的全部情况保密。感谢你的支持与合作。性别:口男口女口87D88口89出生年份:口86口其他在下面的选题中,请在最接近你个人情况的选项上打“√”。1.你在学习中遇到困难时希望得到老师的帮助吗?A经常B偶尔B当场指出B当众指出C很少D从不2.你希望老师怎样对待自己在英语课堂中出现的错误?A不予理会A课后个别指出C耐心指导D间接指出3.教师对你在课堂上的违纪行为进行教育时通常采用何种方式?C严厉批评D间接纠正B避开讨论的话题D接受学生的观点c少数B情绪低落D当场发泄不满D极少4.当与学生的观点不一致时,教师通常:A说服学生接受自己的观点C和学生共同讨论解决问题A绝大多数A无所谓c对老师的印象大打折扣B一些5.在你的前期英语学习中有多少老师能坚持使用礼貌语言策略?6.课堂上当你的面子需要得不到老师的认可时,你通常会:在下面的选题中,请标出最能表明你对所述观点的认可程度的相应数字。(1=十分赞同2=较赞同3=没看法4=不太赞同的措施来满足他们的需求。5=极不赞同)l23457.尽管在教学中许多老师意识到了学生的面子需求,但却不能采取有效8,我更喜欢平甥近人,能设身处地为学生着想的老师。9.老螵瘟该掌握学生的心理从而采取有效的策略组织教学。t0.老疖在教学中给学生聱面子有勘予提高其学习兴趣。的发挥。错,怕丢面子。l234511234523《511.在课堂上如果老师视学生为合作者,那么学生的主动性将得到较好l234512。英语课堂教学中学生不鼗无所颥憨邋回答闷震主要是霞为{逄靛,}鑫出1234513.踅视学生的面子需求反过来也能增强学生对老师的信任度。l234514.在谍堂教学过程中,老师的鼓励和表扬能增强学生的自信心.1234515。老薅耗貔簿体的教学语言对蠡谬煺能力的提高有羞积极敬影响。12345AppendiXⅣLearRers’QuestionnaireThisquestionnaireisaimedatcollectingyourfactsandperceptionsabouttheapplicationofPSinfollowingitemsteachers’PSareanEnglishclassroom.Yourcommentsusontheimportantbecausetheywillhelpclassrooms.andthenachieveresearchintoEnglishinEFLsuccessfulteaching.Pleasegiveyouropinionshonestlyinformationinandwewilltreatyourpersonalcompleteconfidence.Thankyouverymuchforyourco—operationandhelp.Gender:口male口female口87口88口89口otherDateofBirth:口86Pleasetickanitemtoindicateyouranswertothefollowingquestions.1。TowhatextentdoyouhopethatyourteacherwillgiveyousupportyqhenyoumeetsomedifficultyinEnglishstudy?B.Sometimes.C。Seldom.D.Never.A.Frequently.2。Whatdoyouhopeyourteacherwilldowithyourmistakesinclass?noA.Topayattention.outB.TOpointthemC。Toguideusimmediately.tosolvetheproblempatiently.inclass.D.TOpointthemoutindirectly3.Whatisyourteacher’sreactiontoyourmisbehaviorinclass?A.Pointingitoutindividuallyafterclass。B。Pointingitoutpublicly.C。Criticizing。D.Pointingitoutindirectly.4.Whatdoesyourteacherusuallydowhenhis/heropinionisinconflictwithstudents‘?A.Topersuadestudentstoaccepthis/herowrlopinion。B.Toavoidthetopicindiscussion.C.Tosolvetheproblemtogetherwithstudents.叠。Toacceptstudents‘opinion.5.InyourformerEnglishstudk,howmanyteacherscarlkeepusingpolitenessstrategies?A.Mostofthem.B。Someofthem.C.Afewofthem.D.Fewofthem.6.Whenvourteacherfailstosatisfyyourface—wantsinclass,youwiltA.notcare.B.B.beinlowspirits.C.haveanegativeimpressiononhim/her.D.expressmydisapprovalinclass。Pleasecircleanumbertoindicateyourdegreeofagreementwiththefollowingstatements.(1=stronglyagree2=agree3=黼view4=disagree5=stronglydisagree)classroominlearners’face‘wantshaveteachersrecognized7.Thoughmanytheirtoacceleratecannotrelevantstillstrategiesapplyinteraction,theyteachingprocess.8.InmyEnglishstudy,Ipreferamiableteacherswhoare12345moreconsiderate12345oftheirstudents.9。Teachersshouldperceivetheirstudents‘mentalitySOthattheycanemployappropriatestrategiestohelpteaching.10.Teachers’face—savingacts12345willpromotetheirenthusiasminstudy.1234511.Learners’motivationinEnglishwillbestimulatedteacherconsidersthemasonconditionthatthe12345cooperators.12。StudentscannotboldlyanswerquestionsinEnglishclassbecauseoftheir12345canfearofmakingmistakesandlosingface.13.Takingstudents’face-wantsintoaccountconverselyincreasetheir12345trusti娃theteacher.14.Theteacher'sencouragementandpraiseduringtheteachingprocesswill12345aincreaselearners’8elf_confidence.15.Politeandappropriateteacher’Slanguagehasthepositiveinfluenceupon12345improvementoflearners+pragmaticcompetence.BibIiographyClaireKramsch.ContextandCultureinLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1993.GeoffreyLeech.Semantics.Bungay:TheChaucerPress,1981.GeoffreyLeech,JanSvartvik.ACommunicativeGrammarofEnglish.London:Longman,1974.GeorgeYule.Pragmaties.Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress,2000.GillianBrown&GeorgeYule.DiscourseAnalysis.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2000.H.GWiddowson.AspectsofLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversity、Press,1990.JackC.Richards&DavidNunan.SecondLanguageTeacherEducation.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990.JackC.Richards&TheodoreS.Rodgers.ApproachesandLanguageMethodsinTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986.JacobL.Mey.Pragmatics:AnIntroduction.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2001.JeanStilwellPeccei.Pragmatics.London:Routledge,2000.JefVerschueren.UnderstandingPragmatics.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2000.J.L.Austin.HowtoDoThingswithWords.Beijing:ForeignLanguageLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2002.JohnLSaeed.Semantics.Beijing:ForeignTeachingandResearchPress,2000.MarionWilliams&RobertL.Burden.PsychologyforSocialConstruetivist1997.LanguageTeachers:aApproach.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,MachaelSwan.PracticalEnglishUsage.London:OxfordUniversityPress,1980.NoamChomsky.KnowledgeofLanguage:ItsNature,Orig玩andUse.BeOing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2001.PatsyM.Lightbown&NinaSpada.HowLanguagesOxfordUniversityPress,1993.areLearned.Oxford:PeterSkehan.ACognitiveApproachtoLanguageLearning.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1998.RandolphQuirk,SidneyGreenbaum.AUnivers妙GrammarofEnglish.Quirk,SidneyGreenbaum,GeoffreyLeech,JanSvartvik.ALondon:Longman,1973.RandolphGrammarofContemporaryEnglish.London:Longman,1972.RodEllis.UnderstandingSecondUniversityPress,1985.LanguageAcquisition.Oxford:OxfordSidneyGreenbaum,GeoffreyLeech,JanSvartvik.StudiesinEnglishLinguisncs.London:Longman,1979.Stephen1983.C.Levinson.Pragmatics.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityLittlewood.CommunicativeLanguagePress。WilliamTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981.c.杰克斯,刘道义(主编)。SeniorEnglishforChina慨俗tudents’肋幽m1B,24厕.北京:人民教育出版社,2000。曹春春。花笏准牙特屠履矢凑。外语学刊,1998(2)69—73。陈融。英语谫花貂著H—o现代外语,1989(3)24—28。付鸿军。存亨花豺劢冤燃西安外国语学院学报,2000(1)15—18。高航。厉子、花荔与‘芬与吼解放军外语学院学报,1997(2)24—28。戈玲玲。《教学语用学》。长沙:国防科技大学出版社,2002。桂诗春。《心理语言学》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,1982。何兆熊。Studyof√。匆-jtenessinChineseandEnglish邓炎昌,刘润清。《语言与文化》。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1989。Cul}£,rP&外国语,1995(5)2-8。何兆熊。《新编语用学概要》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000。何兆熊。英百存事约龌赞丝。外国语,1984(3)9-13。何兆熊。关葛手乒钐‘觋罄劳戎及兵爿!菪。外国语,1988(4)22—26。何兆熊。《语用学概要》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,1987。何自然。捞鲶£弘y僦现代外语,1987(1)16—22。何兆熊(主编)。《语用学文献选读》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2003。何自然。《语用学概论》。长沙:湖南教育出版社,1988。何自然。《语用学与英语学习》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997。谈甍,英语语甬能力调查及其对外语教学的启示,9幅教学与砥氮,1991(4)56—60。胡文仲。《跨文化交际面面观》。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999。胡壮麟,刘润清,李延福。《语言学教程》(修订版)。北京:北京大学出版社,1987。胡壮麟,刘润清,李延福。《语言学教程》(修订版中译本)。北京:北京大学出版社,2002。姜望琪。《当代语用学》。北京:北京大学出版社,2003。杰弗.N.利奇:李瑞华,王彤福,杨自俭,穆国豪译。《语义学》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,1987。况新华,谢华。国力£争够学研茏期j鎏。外语与外语教学,2002(6)6-8。李福印,KoenraadKuiper。《语义学教程》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,1999。李光立,何福胜。《研究生英语教学研究论文集》。北京:中国人民大学出版社,1997。李瑞华。磬劈徽最蔚原财。争鸡虹外国语,1994(3)25—27。梁心燕,礼貌策略在中学英语课堂教学中的应用:专心学论语彀学,2000(7)8一lO。刘润清。《论大学英语教学》。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999。刘润清。歹琶于[.eecb膨花貌厦黝外语教学与研究,1987(2)42—46。刘润清,胡壮麟。《外语教学中的科研方法》。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1999。刘越莲。花貌与篮字丈纪交际。外语教学,2000(1)38—42。吕燕彬,胡庚申。学术趁艾乒摸耢腰影芬舷运够瑟舆教学罄议。中国英马寅初,黄金岩。《实用英语教学论》。长沙:湖蒯耐谐出版社,1992。马寅初,贾冠杰,姜宁。《中学英语教学心理研究》。长沙:湖南师范大学出版社,2001。语教学,2001(3)43—45。盂建钢。《英语普通语言学教程》。长沙:湖南人民出版社,2003。平洪,张国扬。《英语习语与英美文化》。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2000。钱厚生。光彩存言谤杉长塑趁与方撼外语研究,1993(4)13—16。钱厚生。尧轷花巍磬言孚殷垢璐。外语教学,2002(5)48—5l。颦先美,王崇义,范武邱等。《高等学校英语专业毕业论文导写》。长沙:湖南师范大学出版社,2001。秋月。关于纥藐壤:赂移实励分析外语学刊,1993(4)3卜35。曲卫国,陈流芳。盘旋"Please0趋蘑“劳,,外国语,2001(4)22—27。饶振辉。功,晰尹鲐花貌磬言考荸芳霰外语教学,1993(2)31—36。沉巷。奘,外语课堂教师话语研究现状s曩望,US—ChinaLanguage,2003(11)11—14。Foreign冉永平。花巍崩哭镤;蘑谚旒现代外语,2002(4)388—395。束定芳。《现代语义学》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000。束定芳。害酣‘孚义学学锵肯与发展拦魏外语与外语教学,2000(7)28—32。束定芳(主编)。《中国语用学研究论文精选》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2001。索振羽。《语用学教程》。北京:北京大学出版社,2000。汤燕瑜,刘绍忠。裁炳抒言的语劈分痧冗外语教学与研究,2003(1)19王初明。《应用心理语言学》。长沙:湖南教育出版社,1990。23。王德春,杨素英,黄月圆。《汉英谚语与文化》。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000。王建华。牙著花貉箩语够疆毒外国语,2001(5)25—31。王宗炎。SomesnagsinEnglish—Chineseco脚unication.外语教学与研究,1991(1)28—30。囊枯蔫,j涟噫。学习者因素s大学英语西级考试成续的关系,9幡教学与研究,1996(4)33—39。吴祯福。《英语高级口语》。北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1992。徐盛桓。花貌厦刃搦毵癌y。外语学刊。1992(2)卜7。徐英。办存墚堂鬏师说藐缯讶旃登分痧只外语教学与研究,2003(1)62—68。薛丽山。花嬲芬提旋。外语研究,1991(2)27—33。students’7anguagelearning喻爱菊。英语茂迸阅辞荬验赧告。外语教学与研究,1988(3)38—47。中华人民共和国教育部。《全日制普通高级中学英语教学大纲》。北京:人民教育出版社,2000。周杰。OnpreFerencea中国英语教学,2003(1)27—30。庄和诚。荚葛手孑言钐花貌级别现代外语,1987(1)16—22。附录:攻读硕士学位期间发表的论文及作品:雷玉兰:《汉英礼貌与文化》。外语教学与翻译,2004(7)。雷玉兰:((不定冠词后置的五种特殊用法》。高中生,2004(10)。姚敏、雷玉兰等(合编):((高中新课程三维基训高三英语》。大连:辽宁师范大学出版社,2004。AeknowledgementsYuniforIexpressmycordialthankstomysupervisor,ProfessorWangherpatience.selflesssupportandgreatencouragementinthepreparationofhasimpressedmeinthesisthesis.Hercarefulnesscorrectingmymyandherinvaluablesuggestionshavetofinishthisnotbesuchasomuchnodoubtbeenthesourceofmycouragethesis.Withoutthesis.herencouragementandguidance,therewouldMyappreciationalsoextendstoallthecourseteachersinthecollegeofForeignLanguagesofHunanNormalUniversity—Prof.WangChongyi,ProfWuDinger,Prof.QinYuxiang,Prof.NingYizhong,Prof.ZhuBitaiandAssociateProf.XieZerongfortheirexcellentlecturesandpatienthelpduringmypostgraduatestudyinthiscollege.SpecialthanksgotoProf.FanXianlong,Prof.LiaoGuangrongandProf.LiuXuemingfortheiradvice.helpandIamindebtedto475participantsofmystudy,whogenerouslygavetheirtimeformyexperiment.Withoutnottheircooperationandpatience,thedatacollectioncouldhavebeenproduced.1wouldalsoowemythankstomyclassmatesandcolleagues,whohavehelpedmealotindatacollecting.tomyniecePanCanhui.ItwasshewhodidmostofMythanksalsogothetyping.Fromthebosomofmyheart,Iappreciateallofthemfortheirgeneroushelpandefforts,especiallyProfessorwordSWangYuni.Mygratitudeisbeyond湖南师范大学学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明:所呈交的学位论文,是本人在导师的指导下,独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外,本论文不含任何其他个人或集体已发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体,均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。学位论文作者签名删年/。7月,妒日需砂参
因篇幅问题不能全部显示,请点此查看更多更全内容