Chapter 12 John Milton
Paradise Lost（completed in 1667. In 1674, he published the final version of the epic. 12 books）Type of Work：ParadiseLost is an epic poem which —like the epic poems of Homer, Dante, Vergil, and Goethe—tells a story about momentous
events while incorporating grand themes that are timeless and universal. Sources：Milton used the Bible, Homer's Iliad andOdyssey, Vergil's Aeneid, and the stories in Greco-Roman mythology as sources of information and as writing models. TheBible's Book of Genesis is the main source for his retelling of the story of creation and the first humans, Adam and Eve.Settings：The settings are heaven, hell, the firmament (苍穹) (Chaos), and earth.Characters：
God the Father, God the Son: (trinity)Two of the three divine persons making up the all-powerful Godhead, the singledeity（神性）that created and ruled all that exists outside of itself. The third divine person, the Holy Spirit, does not play arole in Paradise Lost. God the Father is portrayed as just but merciful, condemning (批判) the defiant （⽬中⽆⼈）andunrepentant (不后悔的) rebel angels but permitting redemption of the repentant Adam and Eve. God the Son volunteers toredeem them by becoming human and enduring suffering and death.
Satan (Lucifer, Archfiend): Powerful and prideful angel who, with legions (众多的) of supporters, leads an unsuccessfulrebellion against God and suffers eternal damnation. T o gain revenge, he devises a plan to corrupt God's newly createdbeings, Adam and Eve, through deceit. Modern readers often admire him for his steely defiance (藐视). He would rather rulein hell, he says, than serve in heaven. It was not Milton's intent, however, to create an admirable character; rather his intentwas to create a character of colossal (巨⼤的) hatred — loathsome (令⼈讨厌的), execrable (恶劣的), incurably remorseless(冷酷⽆情的).
Adam and Eve: The first human beings, created by God to fill the void（真空）that resulted when God cast Satan and hissupporters out of the celestial realm. Adam and Eve live on the planet earth in utter happiness in a special garden wherespring is the only season and love and godly living prevail. Though they have all that they want and need, cunning Satantells them they can have knowledge and status beyond their reach if only they eat of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Evecan become a goddess, he says. Vanity overtakes her. She eats. Adam reluctantly does the same. Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, Uriel: Powerful and fearless angels on the side of God.
Beelzebub, Mammon, Belial, Moloch: Powerful leaders in Satan's army. In a great council in hell, each of them speaks hismind on what policy devil-kind should follow after losing paradise. Should they make a new war? Should they make peace? Ithuriel, Zephron: Angels who expel Satan from the Garden of Eden with the help of a sign from God. Satan returns to thegarden later to complete his devious enterprise.
Mulciber: Fallen angel who designs hell's capital city and seat of government, Pandemonium. In ancient Roman
mythology, Mulciber is another name for Vulcan (Greek: Hephaestus), god of fire and the forge. As a blacksmith, he keptshop in burning mountains (volcanoes).
Sin: Daughter of Satan. She was born from his head in the manner of Athena, Greek goddess of wisdom and war, whosprang from the forehead of Zeus, king of the gods.
天动说的design rather than the Copernican design (哥⽩尼式设计). The former placed earth at the center of the solar system,with the sun and other celestial bodies orbiting it. Copernicus and other scientists later proved that the earth orbits the sun.Milton was aware of the Copernican theory, but he used the Ptolemaic design—either because he believed it was the morecredible theory or because he believed it would better serve his literary purpose. In Paradise Lost, Adam inquires about themovements of celestial bodies—in particular, whether earth orbits the sun or vice versa—in his conversation with thearchangel天使Raphael, but Raphael gives no definite answer. Raphael may have been speaking for Milton.Style and Verse Format
Milton wrote Paradise Lost in dignified, lofty, melodic English free of any colloquialisms and slangs that would have limitedthe work's timeliness and universality. The format, Milton says in an introductory note, is \"English heroic verse without
rhyme\"—in other words, blank verse, the same verse form used by Shakespeare in his plays. Milton's strong religious faithinfuses the poem with sincerity and moral purpose, but he does not allow his enthusiasm for his subject to overtake control ofhis writing. Though Milton frequently uses obscure allusions to mythology and history, as well as occasional difficult words
and phrases, his language is never deliberately affected or ostentatious炫耀的. What is more, it does not preach and doesnot take the reader on circumlocutory迂回的expeditions. Like a symphony composer—mighty Beethoven, for example —Milton is always in control, tempering his creative genius with his technical discipline.
With a good dictionary and an annotated有注解的text, a first-time reader of Milton can easily follow and understand the storywhile developing an appreciation for the exquisite writing.Epic Conventions
In Paradise Lost, Milton used the classical epic conventions—literary practices, rules, or devices established by Homer thatbecame commonplace in epic poetry. Some of these practices were also used in other genres ofliterature. Among the classical conventions Milton used are the following:
(1) The invocation 祈祷of the muse, in which a writer requests divine help in composing his work.
(2) Telling a story with which readers or listeners are already familiar; they know the characters, the plot, and the outcome.Most of the great writers of the ancient world—as well as many great writers in later times, including Shakespeare—
frequently told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories, there were no unexpected plot twists, no surpriseendings. If this sounds strange to you, the modern reader and theatergoer, consider that many of the most popular motionpictures today are about stories already known to the public.
(3) Beginning the story in the middle, a literary convention known by its Latin term in media res资源(in the middle of things).Such a convention allows a writer to begin his story at an exciting part, then flash back to fill the reader in on details leadingup to that exciting part.
(4) Announcing or introducing a list of characters who play a major role in the story. They may speak at some length abouthow to resolve a problem (as the followers of Satan do early in Paradise Lost).
(5) Conflict in the celestial realm. Divine beings fight and scheme against one another in the epics of Homer and Vergil, andthey do so in Paradise Lost on a grand scale, with Satan and his forces opposing God and his forces. (6) Use of dramaticirony. Dramatic irony is a literary device in which a character in a story fails to see or understand what is obvious to theaudience or readers. Dramatic irony appears frequently in the plays of the ancient Greeks. Imagery
Milton's imagery is at times graceful and elegant, as in this memorable personification in Book 6 [Waked by the circlinghours, with rosy hand Unbarred the gates of light. (lines 2-4)]
At other times, the imagery is imposing and awe-inspiring, as in this description in Book 7
In Book 8, Milton describes the commission of the first sin in simple, straightforward language, followed by a succinctpersonification summing up the terrible effects of the iniquity
Milton also uses personification in Book 4 in this beautiful passage about a quiet night, the starry sky, and the ascendancyof the moon
Enjambment跨⾏连续
Milton uses frequently uses enjambment (also spelled enjambement) in the poem. It is a literary device in which a poet doesnot complete his sentence or phrase at the end of one line but allows it to carry over to the next line. Milton's use ofenjambment helps the poem flow from one line to the next.Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit
Brought death into the world. . .(Book 1, lines 1-3)Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal tasteMain Theme
In Book 1 of Paradise Lost, Milton reveals the central theme of the work: to justify the ways of God to man. Justify here meansto explain and defend, and ultimately to vindicate澄清, God’s course of action in dealing with Adam and Eve after theysuccumbed to the temptation of Satan and ate forbidden fruit.Other Themes
Inordinate 过度的pride: It leads to Satan's downfall and his continuing defiance of God.
Envy: Arising from Satan's pride, it makes him jealous of God the Son, who is the favorite of God the Father. Revenge: Itmotivates Satan to corrupt Adam and Eve and thereby subvert God's plans.
Vanity: It leads Eve to believe—under the temptation of Satan—that she can become godlike.
Deceit: Satan appears in many disguises and tells many lies during his mission to trick Adam and Eve.Infidelity: Adam betrays God by siding with Eve and eating the forbidden fruit.
Unbridled 不受约束的pursuit of knowledge: It leads Adam and Eve to seek knowledge beyond their ken, knowledge that willmake them godlike.
Volition意志: Angels and humans alike possess free will, enabling them to make decisions. Satan freely chooses to rebelagainst God, and Adam and Eve freely choose to eat forbidden fruit. The consequences of their actions are their own fault,not God's. Milton uses this theme to help support the central theme, \"to justify the ways of God to man.\"
Disobedience违抗: All sins are acts of disobedience against God, impairing or cutting off the sinner's relationship with God.Adam and Eve and all of the devils disobey God through their sins.
Loyalty: Loyalty to God and his ways are necessary for eternal salvation. Loyalty requires obedience. All of the good angelsexhibit loyalty.
Repentance悔悟: Even though Adam and Eve have disobeyed God, their repentance makes them eligible for eventualsalvation.
Hope: At the end of Paradise Lost, Adam and Eve enter the imperfect world with hope; they can yet attain eternal salvation.Redemption赎回: Through the suffering and death of the Son of God, sinful man can reconcile himself with God if he issincerely sorry for his sins.Climax
The climax, or turning point, of Paradise Lost occurs when Adam and Eve succumb to Satan's temptations and eat theforbidden fruit. This act of disobedience results in their downfall and eviction from Paradise.What Is an Angel?
An angel is a supernatural being that serves God by praising and adoring Him and by carrying out special missions thatassist humans. Angels have the additional task of opposing and punishing devils. Devils are angels
cast out of heaven because they rebelled against God. The word angel derives from the Greek word angelos, meaningmessenger. The major western religions—Christianity, Judaism, and Islam—all accept the existence of angels. The rank ofangels from highest to lowest is as follows:1. Seraphim (Seraph)2. Cherubim (Cherub)3. Thrones4. Dominations5. Virtues6. Powers7. Principalities8. Archangels9. Angels
Chapter 13 The Seventeenth-Century Prose2007-11-12 13:53I. Bible
1. The Bible is the name given to the revelation of God to man contained in sixty-six books or pamphlets, bound together andforming one book.
2. The Books of the Bible：Old Testament（39 Books, written in the Hebrew language between 1400 and 400
B.C. ）About the creation of the world, the origin of the Jewish people, its history, religion, law, and poetry. New
Testament（27 Books, written in the Greek language between 40 and 100 A.D.）About Jesus Christ’s life, his deeds andteachings
Son of an important official / Studied law, became a barrister and entered House of Commons, legal advisor to Elizabeth I /Attorney General and Lord Chancellor under James I; forced out of office in 1621 / Retired to his estate to write and study /Tried to convince Elizabeth I and James I to embrace natural philosophy as statecraft2. Major WorksEssays (1594)
The Advancement of Learning (1605) Great Instauration and Novum Organum (1620) New Atlantis (posthumous)3. Important Baconian ideas
●Reliance on the evidence of the senses and instruments●Progress through technology
●Technological transformation of nature to make it useful to humanity●State Institutions of science: institutes, centralization, technocratic expertise4. Bacon’s Essays
●Essay as a form of literature, the essay is a composition of moderate length, usually in prose, which deals in aneasy, cursory way with the external conditions of a subject, and, in strictness, with that subject, only as it affects the writer.The essay was invented by Montaigne.●Bacon’s essays
Bacon offers his views on a whole smorgasbord of topics ranging from Truth, Death,' Adversitie', Marriage & the single life,Love, Boldness, Superstition, Friendship, Health, Ambition, Youth, Beauty to Anger & Fame.Features of Bacon’s essays
●Bacon’s essays are the first example of that genre in English lit erature and have been recognized as an
important landmark in the development of English prose. The essays are famous for the pithy aphoristic style, which he haddefended in principle in The Advancement of Learning as proper for the expression of tentative opinions.●There is an obvious stylistic change in the Essays. The sentences in the first edition are charged and crowdedwith symmetries. They are composed in a rather affected way. However, the final edition not only enlarges the range oftheme, but also brings forth the looser and more persuasive style.
●The essays are well arranged and enriched by Biblical allusions, metaphors and cadences. In general, Bacon’sliterary style is noted for three prominent qualities: directness, terseness, and forcefulness.II. John Bunyan (1628-1688)1. Life and Career
Had very little schooling, but abnormally active imagination with dreams and fears of devils and hell-fire / Worked in thetinker's trade / Served in the parliamentary army / Married in 1649 / Joined a non-sectarian church / Was arrested andimprisoned for making illegal preaching in the surrounding villages / Wrote Pilgrim’s Progress in Prison2. Points of View
●Religiously, a devout Christian, and a firm non-conformist of the Anglican Church, he believed that man’s finalsalvation could be achieved only by one’s own spiritual struggle.
●Politically, with a deep hatred for the corrupted, hypocritical rich, he condemned oppression, falsehood,
indulgence in pleasure seeking and many other vices of the money-corrupted upper class, but eulogized the truth-seekingChristian.
3. The Pilgrim's Progress
(1) Story : A tale of adventure on a perilous path, encountering giants, wild beasts, hobgoblins, etc. The tale based on humanexperience: e.g. the moving account of his death with Hopeful(2) Major characters
Christian Faithful Hopeful Giant Despair Ignorance Christiana(3) Major theme:
●Spiritual salvation for mankind●The cost of salvation
●The road to salvation is difficult and lonely ●Salvation is attainable by all who seek it. ●To grow in holiness is a dailybattle, in which there
will be setbacks and encouragements, but which isa battle worth fighting
(4) The basic metaphor: Life is a journey.
●\"Everyone sojourning in the flesh is passing through this earth to a mysterious state of future bliss .... thePilgrim's progress is toward no earthly destination.―●The journey is from this world to the next world.
●Pilgrim, one who strives to obtain salvation of their soul through a physical journey in which love for God, and notlove for material things, drives them.
●Pilgrimage: the journey to a distant sacred goal; it is found in all the great religions of the world. It is a journey
both outwards to hallowed places and inwards to spiritual improvement; it can express penance for past evils, or the searchfor future good; the pilgrim may pursue spiritual ecstasy in the sacred sites of a particular faith, or seek a miracle through themedium of God or a saint.
●Johnson praised John Bunyan highly. \"His Pilgrim's Progress has great merit, both for invention, imagination,
and the conduct of the story; and it has had the best evidence of its merit, the general and continued approbation of mankind.Few books, I believe, have had a more extensive sale. It is remarkable, that it begins very much like the poem of Dante; yetthere was no translation of Dante when Bunyan wrote. There is reason to think that he had read Spenser.\"(5) Special features
●The most successful religious allegory in English language
●Vivid characterization: Travelers who represent states of the soul, or moral attitudes
●Style: Modeled on the prose style of the English Bible; Simple diction; colloquial expressions; andstraightforward sentence structuresIII. John Dryden (1631-1700)1. Life and Career
Born in a country g entry’s family / Received his education at Cambridge / Shifted to the royalist side after Restoration /Became a prominent poet, dramatist, and critic in his time2. Major Works
Absalom and Achitophel
Antony and Cleopatra: All for LoveAn Essay of Dramatic Poesy3. Influence on Literature
●Dryden is the ―lock by which the waters of English poetry were let down from the mountains of Shakespeare andMilton to the plain of Pope.‖
●His satire exerted a fruitful influence on the most brilliant verse satirists of the next century.
●As a prose writer, Dryden had a very marked influence on English literature in shortening his sentences, andespecially in writing naturally, without depending on literary ornamentation to give effect to what he is saying.
Primarily focusing on drama, the poetry of plays, he creates a dialogue between poet/critics of He chooses to review theexisting, generally accepted conventions and decide in what respects they are being followed, or whether they should befollowed by English writers.
Chapter 14 Introduction to the 18th centuryI. Introductory Remarks:
The period (1660-1798) began with the Restoration of Charles II, during whose reign the leading literary figure was JohnDryden, with whom the neoclassical literature came into being, and concluded with the death of Samuel Johnson in 1784,the last important advocate of neoclassicism. By Johnson’s death, neoclassic
ism came to a decline the 18th century. Complacency (self-satisfaction) marked the beginning of the 18th century. The upperclasses, in complete control now, wanted no religious enthusiasts and revolutionaries. They believed in reason. This rationalapproach to social and literary problems have given it the title of ―The Age of Reason‖, while the desire for perfect formwhich resulted in adaptations of Greek and Latin models has caused it to be called ―The Neoclassic Age.‖1. The Glorious Revolution (1688)
1) James II (reactionary rule and ruthless suppression of the Protestant rebellion) / discontent from the bourgeoisie and thearistocracy / Mary and her husband, William were invited to be joint sovereigns of the English throne / James II was forced toabdicate and fled to France in 1688. / This was called the Glorious or Bloodless Revolution in England
2) After that England gradually became a constitutional monarchy, and power passed from the king to the parliament and thecabinet.
2. Religious Conflicts
With the triumph of the Glorious Revolution, the conflicts were very intense between the Anglican Church and its twoadversaries – Protestant Dissenters and Roman Catholics. Finally England was firmly established as a dominantly
Protestant nation. In the late 17th century, Deism⾃然神教admitted their belief in a Supreme Being or the God as the creatorof the world, but they glorified reason and so rejected the so-called “revealed”religious truth.(reason underlying the so-called“revealed”religious truth)
3. The Rapid Expanding of the British Empire
the defeat of the Holland navy; a series of victories over France / the Act of Union of 1707 – Great Britain / from Canada in thewest to India in the east / Swift, Burke, Sheridan and Goldsmith (from Ireland); Thomson, Boswell, Hume and Burns (fromScotland).
4. The Industrial Revolution
the discovery of the Laws of Gravitation by Newton; steam engine (James Watt); te xtile machines… / the Enclosure 5. Two-Party Politics (The Tory and the Whig)
the Tory (conservative) defended the kingship, the old traditions and the noble country families / the Whig (liberal) sought to
increase the powers of the Parliament and to advance commerce and education.6. Connection between Politics and Literature
political pamphlets / literary men were eager to offer their services in shaping the government7. The American War of Independence and the French Revolution (1789-1794)
The century closed, however, with revolutions, exploding in the American colonies and in France. Though these outbursts ofrevolutionar y movements did not change England’s position as a big industrial and capitalist power, they had the most far-reaching influences upon men’s thoughts and were left most deeply in literature, esp in the literature of the Age ofRomanticism which followed.
III. Enlightenment启蒙运动and its effects on English literature
1. It was a progressive intellectual movement throughout Western Europe in the 18th and Russia in the 19th centuries. Themovement was, on the whole, an expression of the struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. The enlighteners foughtagainst class inequality, stagnation停滞, prejudices and other feudal survivals.
2. The enlightenment was so called because it considered the chief means for the betterment of the society was the
―enlightenment‖ or ―education‖ of the people. In other words they believed in the power of reason and their watchwordwas ―common sense‖. That is why the 18th century in England has often been called ―the Age of Reason‖. Most of theenlightenment thinkers believed that social problems could not be solved by church doctrines or by the power of God butshould be solved with human intelligence.
3. Most of the important writers of the 18th century belonged to the enlightenment. In their works these writers criticizeddifferent aspects of contemporary England, discussed social problems and the management of the government, and someeven partly defended the interests of the exploited laboring masses, the peasants, and the working people in the cities. Theliterature of the Enlightenment in England mainly appealed to the middle class readers.IV. Neo-Classicism
1. Neoclassicism was a reaction against the intricacy 复杂and occasional obscurity晦涩, boldness and the extravagance ofEuropean literature of the late Renaissance, and in favor of simplicity, clarity, restraint, regularity and good sense. InEngland, neoclassicism was initiated by Dryden, culminated in Pope and continued by Johnson.
2. The writers were considered neoclassic because they modeled themselves on classical Greek or Latin authors in order toachieve perfect form in literature. The general tendency of neoclassical literature was to look at social and political lifecritically, to emphasize intellect rather than imagination, the form rather than the content of a sentence.3. Chief characteristics of Neoclassic literature
1) The neoclassic writers manifested a strong traditionalism, which was clearly shown in their immense respect for classicalwriters.
2) The neoclassic believed that literature was primarily an ―art‖, which must be perfected by long study and practice. Theylaid much emphasis on the correct, the appropriate, on restraint and discipline, paid much attention to their style, andrespected the established rules of their art.
3) The neoclassic regarded poetry as imitation of human life –a mirror up to nature. Emphasis was placed on what humanbeings possess in common （共性）–representative characteristics, and widely shared experiences, thoughts, feelings andtastes.
4) The neoclassic believed that the poet is the maker – the maker of the representative images of human actions and of theworld, and the purpose for which he makes this image of life is to teach. In order to teach effectively, he must please thereader by his fictions, and by all the ornaments of language, metrics and rhetoric that belong to his craft. This concept of thenature of the poet inevitably determines the didactic, satirical, artificial and orderly qualities of neoclassicism.5) The neoclassic deduced 演绎rules from the practice of early masters and invented new rules of their own.
In drama, they adhered to the three unities of time, place and action, regularity in construction, and the presentation of typesrather than individuals.
In di ction, they highly regarded ―witty‖ expressions. They preferred the use of artificial and stock diction. ?In poetry, theydemanded it to follow the ancient divisions: lyric, epic, didactic, satiric or dramatic, and each class should be guided by itsown principles.
In versification诗律, the age was famous for its ―closed heroic couplet‖, that is, two rhyming lines of iambic pentameterwhich contains within itself a complete statement and so is closed by a semicolon, period, question mark, or exclamationpoint.
The neoclassic poetry differs from that of the Elizabethan Age in three ways. First, it is more formal, with its demand to
follow exact rules, while the Elizabethans wrote in a more natural style sometimes without regard to rules; second, it is moreartificial, polished, prosaic单调的, and dull and lacks the creative vigor of the Elizabethans; third, the chief poetic form ofneoclassicism is heroic couplet which replaced the variety of forms in the Elizabethan Age.4. The literature of the Neoclassic Age (1660-1784)
1) the first, extending to the death of Dryden in 1700, may be thought of as the period in which English ―neoclassical‖literature came into being and its critical principles were formulated; the second, ending with the death of Pope in 1744 andof Swift in 1745, brought to its culmination the literary movement; the third, concluding with the death of Johnson in 1784 andthe publication of William Cowper’s The Task in 1785, was a period in which neoclassical principles gradually petered out 耗尽and were replaced by the Romantic Movement.Chapter 15 The 18th Century PoetryI. Alexander Pope (1688-1744)1. Life Story
Born in London of a successful merchant’s family, of Roman Catholic faith / weak and crippled from childhood / did not haveregular schooling but was taught at home by a priest / his only amusement was reading and writing. He taught himself byreading and translating Latin, French, Italian, and Greek poets, with the help of dictionaries and grammar books. Pope beganto write poems when he was only 12.2. His Poems1) the first group
didactic and philosophical poems, including Essay on Criticism (1711); Moral Essays (1731); An Essay on Man (1734);2) The second group contains his poems of social satires, such as the Rape of the Lock (1714); An Heroic-Comical Poemand The Dunciad
3) The third group is composed of his translations of Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.3. His Influences
1) He had a brilliant wit, a sharp critical sense, and a deadly pen. He brought the neoclassicism in England to its climax.2) In his hands, the heroic couplet achieved all the finish, elegance, wit and pointedness which the form invited.
3) As a technician in English verse 韵⽂he has never been excelled, and he occupied such a prominent place in the literaryworld of his time that not infrequently the literary epoch of early 18th century has been named after him as “The Age of Pope”.After his time, esp since the 19th century, Pope has been much criticized and some critics have called him a versifier and nota poet, meaning that he wrote clever and standardized but very mechanical sort of verse which had not flights of poetic
imagination. Bla ke summarized him as ―elegant formalism‖. Byron, however, thought highly of him, defended him, and wasmuch under his influence. Nowadays he is rated by some critics as second only to Shakespeare and Milton, and the equal ofWordsworth.
II. Thomas Gray (1716-1771)
The most scholarly and well-balanced of all the early romantic poets and the most outstanding of the minor poets of the mid-18th century.1. Life Story
Born in London / educated first at Eton and then at Cambridge / spend 2 years on a grand tour of the European Continent /after graduation he continued to live at Cambridge and was appointed professor at Cambridge.2. His WorksOn Spring;
On a Distant Prospect of Eton College; On Adversity不幸(1742); Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard墓畔哀歌Ode on the Death of a Favourite Cat (an elegy on Walpole)3. His Features
1) Gray was familiar with all the intellectual interest of his age, and his works had much of the precision and polish of theclassical school.
2) His early poems belonged to the literary tradition of neoclassicism. But he also shared the reawakened interest in nature,in common men, and in medieval culture, so his later works were generally romantic both in style and in spirit.3) He also fell under the influence of sentimentalism感伤主义. His poetry reveals two suggestive things.●the appearance of that melancholy忧郁which characterizes the poetry of Romanticism;
●the study of nature, not for its own beauty or truth, but rather as a suitable background for the play of humanemotions4. His Influences
Gray’s poetic output was small（around 10）, but his Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard was given high praise byliterary historians and critics almost unanimously. The Elegy was regarded as the acme 顶点of graveyard
.墓畔派诗⼈
\"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard\" is—as the title indicates—an elegy. Such a poem centers on the death of a personor persons and is, therefore, somber in tone. An elegy is lyrical rather than narrative—that is, its primary purpose is to expressfeelings and insights about its subject rather than to tell a story. Typically, an elegy expresses feelings of loss and sorrowwhile also praising the deceased and commenting on the meaning of the deceased's time on earth. Gray's poem reflects onthe lives of humble and unheralded未为⼈所知的people buried in the cemetery 墓地of a church.2. Setting （time and place）
The time is the mid 1700s, about a decade before the Industrial Revolution began in England. The place is the cemetery of achurch. Evidence indicates that the church is St. Giles, in the small town of Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire, in southern
England. Gray himself is buried in that cemetery. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, once maintained a manor 领地house at Stoge Poges.
3. Years of Composition and Publication
Gray began writing the elegy in 1742, put it aside for a while, and finished it in 1750. Robert Dodsley published the poem inLondon in 1751. Revised or altered versions of the poem appeared in 1753, 1758, 1768, and 1775. Copies of the variousversions are on file in the Thomas Gray Archive at Oxford University.4. Meter 节拍and Rhyme 韵律Scheme
Gray wrote the poem in four-line stanzas (quatrains). Each line is in iambic pentameter, meaning the following: ●Each linehas five pairs of syllables for a total of ten syllables.
●In each pair, the first syllable is unstressed (or unaccented), and the second is stressed (or accented), as in thetwo lines that open the poem:
The CUR few TOLLS the KNELL of PART ing DAYThe LOW ing HERD wind SLOW ly O'ER the LEA
In each stanza, the first line rhymes with the third and the second line rhymes with the fourth (abab), as follows:a..The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
b..The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea, a..The plowman homeward plods his weary way,
晚钟响起来⼀阵阵给⽩昼报丧，⽜群在草原上迂回，吼声起落，耕地⼈累了，回家⾛，脚步踉跄，把整个世界给了黄昏与我。A stanza with the above-mentioned characteristics — four lines, iambic pentameter, and an abab rhyme scheme — is oftenreferred to as a heroic quatrain. (Quatrain is derived from the Latin word quattuor, meaning four.) William Shakespeare andJohn Dryden had earlier used this stanza form. After Gray's poem became famous, writers and critics also began referring tothe heroic quatrain as an elegiac stanza.6. Themes
1) Death: the Great Equalizer均衡，平等
Even the proud and the mighty must one day lie beneath the earth, like the humble men and women now buried in the
churchyard, as line 36 notes: The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Lines 41-44 further point out that no grandiose宏伟的memorials and no flattering words about the deceased can bring him or her back from death.Can storied urn or animated bust
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flatt'ry soothe the dull cold ear ofDeath? 栩栩的半⾝像，铭刻了事略的瓮碑，难道能恢复断⽓，促使还魂？“荣誉”的声⾳能激发沉默的死灰？“陷媚”能叫死神听软了⽿根？2）Missed Opportunities
Because of poverty or other handicaps, many talented people never receive the opportunities they deserve. The followinglines elucidate 阐明this theme through metaphors:
Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear: Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen,And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 世界上多少晶莹皎洁的珠宝
埋在幽暗⽽深不可测的海底；世界上多少花吐艳⽽⽆⼈知晓，把芬芳⽩⽩散发给荒凉的空⽓。
Here, the gem宝⽯at the bottom of the ocean may represent an undiscovered musician, poet, scientist or philosopher. Theflower may likewise stand for a person of great and noble qualities that are \"wasted on the desert air.\" Of course, on anotherlevel, the gem and the flower can stand for anything in life that goes unappreciated.3）Virtue
In their rural setting, far from the temptations of the cities and the courts of kings, the villagers led virtuous lives, as lines 73-76point out:
Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray; Along the cool sequester'd vale of lifeThey kept the noiseless tenor of their way. 远离了纷纭⼈世的勾⼼⽃⾓，他们有清醒的愿望，从不学糊涂，顺着⽣活的清凉的⼭坳，他们坚持了不声不响的正路。7. Inversion 反向
For poetic effect, Gray frequently uses inversion (reversal of the normal word order). Following are examples:Line 6: And all the air a solemn stillness holds (all the air holds a solemn stillness)Line 14: Where heaves the turf in many a mould'ring heap (Where the turf heaves)
Line 24: Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. (Or climb his knees to share the envied kiss)
Line 79: With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd (deck'd with uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture)8．Syncope字中⾳省略
Gray also frequently uses a commonplace poetic device known as syncope, the omission of letters or sounds within a word.The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea (line 2). Now fades the glimm'ring landscape on the sight (line 5) Save that fromyonder ivy-mantled tow'r (line 9) The swallow twitt'ring from the straw-built shed (line 18) 9．Figures of Speech1）Alliteration
●Repetition of a Consonant Sound
The plowman homeward plods his weary way (line 3) The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn (line 19) Nor cast one
longing, ling'ring look behind? (line 88) Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn (line 107) Or craz'd with care, or cross'd inhopeless love. (line 108)2）Anaphora ⾸语重复法
●Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of word groups occurring one after the other
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave (line 34) Their name, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd muse (line 81) Ev'n fromthe tomb the voice of Nature cries,
Ev'n in our ashes live their wonted fires. (lines 91-92)3）Metaphor
●Comparison between unlike things without using like, as, or than
Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear: Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen,And waste its sweetness on the desert air. (lines 53-56)
●Comparison of the dead village people to unappreciated gems and flowers
Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. (lines 71-72) ●Comparison of flatteringwords to incense4）Metonymy 转喻
●Use of a word or phrase to suggest a related word or phraseTo scatter plenty o'er a smiling land Land stands for people.5）Personification
● A form of metaphor that compares a thing to a person
Let not Ambition mock their useful toil Their homely joys, and destiny obscure; Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smileThe short and simple annals of the poor. (lines 29-32)●Ambition and Grandeur take on human characteristics.
But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll (line 49-50) ●Notice that Knowledgebecomes a person, a female.
Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth, And Melancholy mark'd him for her own. (lines 119-120)●Science and Melancholy become persons.10. Assessment of the Poem
Scholars regard \"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard\" as one of the greatest poems in the English language. It weavesstructure, rhyme scheme, imagery and message into a brilliant tapestry织锦画that confers on Gray everlasting fame. Thequality of its poetry and insights reach Shakespearean and Miltonian heights.11. Biographical Information
Thomas Gray was born in London on December 26, 1716. He was the only one of twelve children who survived intoadulthood. His father, Philip, a scrivener (a person who copies text) was a cruel, violent man, but his mother, Dorothy,believed in her son and operated a millinery business to educate him at Eton school in his childhood and PeterhouseCollege, Cambridge, as a young man.
He left the college in 1738 without a degree to tour Europe with his friend, Horace Walpole, the son of the first prime ministerof England, Robert Walpole (1676-1745). However, Gray did earn a degree in law although he never practiced in thatprofession. After achieving recognition as a poet, he refused to give public lectures because he was extremely shy.
Nevertheless, he gained such widespread acclaim and respect that England offered him the post of poet laureate, which
would make him official poet of the realm. However, he rejected the honor. Gray was that rare kind of person who cared littlefor fame and adulation.
Chapter 16 The 18th Century ProseI. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)1. Life Story
Born in Dublin / studied at Trinity College, Dublin / after graduation he was admitted into the household of a disrelative andworked as a secretary for ten years / from 1710-1714, he was the chief editor of The Examiner, a newspaper of the Tories. /He left London in 1714 and became the Dean of St.Patrick’s in Dublin.2 His Works
Most of his works are satires.
●The Battle of Books and A Tale of a Tub (1704), satirizing the corruptions in religion and learning.
●He deeply sympathized the Irish people under English rule, and took an active part in their struggle for libertyand national independence.●
●
3. allegorical(讽喻的) novel Gulliver’s Travels, which gives an unparalelled satirical depiction of the vices of the age.III.A Modest Proposal1. Type of Work
\"A Modest Proposal\" is an essay that uses satire to make its point. 【A satire is a literary work that attacks or pokes fun atvices, abuses, stupidity, and / or any other fault or imperfection. Satire may make the reader laugh at, or feel disgust for, theperson or thing satirized. Impishly (⼼地不善地) or sardonically(讽刺地), it criticizes someone or something, using wit andclever wording—and sometimes makes outrageous assertions or claims. The main purpose of a satire is to spur readers toremedy the problem under discussion. The main weapon of the satirist is verbal irony, a figure of speech in which words areused to ridicule a person or thing by conveying a meaning that is the opposite of what the words say.】
The essay was originally printed in the form of a pamphlet. At the time of its publication, 1729, a pamphlet was a short workthat took a stand on a political, religious, or social issue—or any other issue of public interest. A typical pamphlet had nobinding, although it sometimes had a paper cover. Writers of pamphlets, called pamphleteers, played a significant role ininflaming or resolving many of the great controversies in Europe in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, as well as in thepolitical debate leading up to the American Revolution.
In addition to ―A Modest Proposal,‖ Jonathan Swift wrote many political pamphlets supporting th e causes of the Torypolitical party after he renounced his allegiance to the Whig party.2. Purpose
Jonathan Swift wrote ―A Modest Proposal‖ to call attention to abuses inflicted on Irish Catholics by well-to-do EnglishProtestants. Swift himself was a Protestant, but he was also a native of Ireland, having been born in Dublin of Englishparents. He believed England was exploiting and oppressing Ireland.
Many Irishmen worked farms owned by Englishmen who charged high rents—so high that the Irish were frequently unable topay them. Consequently, many Irish farming families continually lived on the edge of starvation.
In ―A Modest Proposal,‖ Swift satirizes the English landlords with outrageous humor, proposing that Irish infants be sold asfood at age one, when they are plump and healthy, to give the Irish a new source of income and the English a new foodproduct to bolster their economy and eliminate a social problem. He says his proposal, if adopted, would also result in areduction in the number of Catholics in Ireland, since most Irish infants—almost all of whom were baptized Catholic—wouldend up in stews and other dishes instead of growing up to go to Catholic churches. Here, he is satirizing the prejudice ofProtestants toward Catholics.
Swift also satirizes the Irish themselves in his essay, for too many of them had accepted abuses stoically rather than takingaction on their own behalf.3. Historical Background
Over the centuries, England gradually gained a foothold in Ireland. In 1541, the parliament in Dublin recognized England’sHenry VIII, a Protestant, as King of Ireland. In spite of repeated uprisings by Irish Catholics, English Protestants acquiredmore and more estates in Ireland. By 1703, they owned all but ten percent of the land. Meanwhile, legislation was enactedthat severely limited the rights of the Irish to hold government office, purchase real estate, get an education, and advancethemselves in other ways. As a result, many Irish fled to foreign lands, including America. Most of those who remained inIreland lived in poverty, facing disease, starvation, and prejudice. It was this Ireland—an Ireland of the tyrannized and thedowntrodden—that Jonathan Swift attempted to focus attention on in ―A Modest Proposal‖ in 1720.4. Essay Format
In \"A Modest Proposal,\" Swift uses a standard essay format: an opening that presents the topic and thesis (the \"modestproposal\"), a body that develops the thesis with details, and a conclusion. In the opening, the author states the problem: thedeplorable economic and social conditions that impoverish the Irish and prevent them from providing adequate care for theirchildren. Before presenting the thesis, he inserts the following transitional sentence: \"I shall now therefore humbly proposemy own thoughts, which I hope will not be liable to the least objection.\" He follows this sentence with the thesis, thenpresents the details in the body of the essay. In the conclusion, he states the benefits that would accrue积累from hisproposal. He begins with the following two sentences: \"I have too long digressed岔题的, and therefore shall return to mysubject. I think the advantages by the proposal which I have made are obvious and many, as well as of the highest
importance.\" He next lists the advantages, using transitional words such as secondly and thirdly to move from one point tothe next.\" He ends the conclusion by explaining why his proposal is superior to other remedies. Keep in mind that throughoutthe body and conclusion Swift makes his argument with irony, stating the opposite of what he really means.5. Irony
The dominant figure of speech in \"A Modest Proposal\" is verbal irony, in which a writer or speaker says the opposite of whathe means. Swift's masterly use of this device makes his main argument—that the Irish deserve better treatment from theEnglish—powerful and dreadfully amusing. For example, to point out that the Irish should not be treated like animals, Swiftcompares them to animals, as in this example: \"I rather recommend buying the
children alive, and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do roasting pigs.\" Also, to point out that disease, famine, andsubstandard living conditions threaten to kill great numbers of Irish, Swift cheers their predicament 困境as a positivedevelopment:
Some persons of a desponding沮丧的spirit are in great concern about that vast number of poor people, who are aged,diseased, or maimed, and I have been desired to employ my thoughts what course may be taken to ease the nation of sogrievous an encumbrance累赘. But I am not in the least pain upon that matter, because it is very well known that they areevery day dying and rotting by cold and famine, and filth and vermin寄⽣⾍, as fast as can be reasonably expected. And as tothe young laborers, they are now in as hopeful a condition; they cannot get work, and consequently pine away for want ofnourishment, to a degree that if at any time they are accidentally hired to common labor, they have not strength to perform it;and thus the country and themselves are happily delivered from the evils to come.6. Themes
●Exploitation of the Downtrodden受压迫的
Beneath Swift’s audacious⼤胆的satire is a serious theme: that English overlords are shamelessly exploiting and oppressingthe impoverished people of Ireland through unfair laws, high rents charged by absentee landlords, and other injustices.●Prejudice
At the time of the publication of \"A Modest Proposal,\" many British Protestants disdained蔑视Roman Catholics -- especiallyIrish Catholics -- and enacted laws limiting their ability to thrive and prosper.●Irish Inaction ⽆为
Swift's satirical language also chides 指责the Irish themselves for not acting with firm resolve to improve their lot.7. Essay Topics
●The language of \"A Modest Proposal\" is specific and succinct. It is also playfully shocking, as demonstrated in
the following paragraph in which Swift uses carcasses (remains of dead animals dressed by butchers) to refer to the remainsof children prepared as meat: \"Supposing that one thousand families in this city, would be constant customers for Infant'sFlesh, besides others who might have it at merry meetings, particularly at weddings and christenings, I compute that Dublinwould take off annually about twenty thousand carcasses, and the rest of the Kingdom (where probably they will be soldsomewhat cheaper) the remaining eighty thousand.\"Chapter 17 The 18th Century NovelI. Novel
It is a work of narrative fiction of some length, nearly always in prose, bearing a close resemblance to daily life in psychology,environment and time scale. (Gille)II. The Origin of the English Novel
Modern Europea n novel can be said to begin in the late Renaissance with Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1605-1616). The riseand growth of the realistic novel is the most significant development of 18th century literature, which has given the world suchforerunners of modern novelists as Richardson, Fielding, and Sterne.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the novel has become the most popular of all literary forms. But its history before the 18thcentury is fragmentary. The origin of the novel can be traced back to the romances of the ancient world and earlyRenaissance.
The man who made the most important advances toward the novel is Danial Defoe. His masterpiece is Robinson Crusoe, aswell as his other prose narratives (Moll Flanders, Roxana) lack nothing required of the novel but a centual plot. They presentmerely a series of loosely connected episodes, much in the manner of so-called picaresque romances of Spain, which
related the adventures and intrigues of a rogue or picaro. But in point of characterization, Defoe’s stories ar e excellent, andin their air of realism they are actually in advance of the earliest novels.
Moreover, Robinson Crusoe achieves an enforced unity of action by focusing on the problem of surviving on a uninhabitedisland. It presents so convincing a central character, sets in so solid and factually realized world that Defoe is often creditedwith writing the first true ―novel of incident‖.
The credit for having written the first English novel is given to Samuel Richardson for his Pamela, which took the world bystorm.Tom JonesI. Type of Work
The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling, is a novel that centers on a likable hero who romps through a series of adventureswhile growing up and pursuing the girl he idolizes. The novel falls into the general category of comedy because of its humorand its happy ending. It contains elements of the following genres:
●Bildungsroman教育⼩说: Novel about the coming of age, or maturation, of the main character. In Tom Jones, thetitle character undergoes character development while growing up in the country, experiencing adventures while
●and adventures while traveling from one
place to another. Tom Jones is a long narrative about the struggles and adventures of a traveling protagonist. ●Mock Epic:Literary work that uses the elevated style of a classical epic (such as Homer's Odyssey or Virgil'sAeneid) to describe a trivial or insignificant event. The result is a comic or satirical passage.
●Romance: (1) Narrative about the adventures of a chivalric骑⼠的hero who often is in love with a noble lady; (2)narrative that emphasizes love. Tom Jones battles villains, rescues a damsel少⼥in distress, and is in love witha noble lady.
●Picaresque以流浪汉为题材的novel: Novel about the episodic adventures of a vagabond 流浪汉hero. TomJones experiences many episodic adventures while traveling from one place to another.
II. Structure and Setting
Henry Fielding presented the novel in three main sections with action taking place in the first half of the eighteenth century.The first section centers on life in the country at the estates of Squire Allworthy and Squire Western in Somersetshire
(Somerset County) in southwestern England. In this section, the protagonist, Tom Jones, grows from infant foundling into ateenager who falls in love with the beautiful daughter of Squire Western.
The second part of the novel takes place along roads, a inns, and in other locales between Somersetshire and London in themiddle t and late 1740s, when the Jacobite rebellion was under way and English soldiers were bracing for battles with theirenemies (Jacobites), who were seeking to restore the House of Stuart to the English throne. In this section, the protagonistexperiences many episodic adventures involving a diverse cast of characters that include a woman in distress, soldiers onthe march, gypsies, untrustworthy靠不住的lawyers, puppeteers拉线⽊偶表演者, women admirers of the title character, and animpoverished robber.
The action in the third part takes place mainly in London, where the title character searches for his beloved, fights a duel, hasencounters with a possessive seductress, goes to jail, gains his freedom, and reunites with his beloved. This section endswhen the principal characters return to Somersetshire.III. Tone :The tone is playful and light-hearted.IV. Point of View视⾓，⾓度
When telling the story, the narrator generally uses third-person omniscient ⽆所不知的point of view, enabling him to revealthe thoughts of the characters. When commenting on the story, the narrator uses first-person point of view, sometimes in thesingular and sometimes in the plural.
On occasion, the narrator uses first-person point of view while telling the story, as in theBook 9, Chapter 3.V. Characters
Tom Jones: The main character. The story follows his development from infancy to young manhood. Born out of wedlock, hebecomes the adopted child of Squire Allworthy and the rival of the devious 不正直的Blifil, the son of Allworthy's sister,Bridget, and her husband, Captain Blifil. Tom is honest, courageous, and generous but at times imprudent轻率的anddownright reckless鲁莽的.
Sophia Western: Beautiful daughter of Squire Western. She and Tom fall in love, but circumstances keep them apart until theend of the novel.
Squire Allworthy: Wealthy landowner who adopts and rears T om Jones. As his name suggests, he is \"all worthy\"—that is,kindly, generous, and morally upright. However, he sometimes makes unwise decisions.
Bridget Allworthy / Bridget Blifil: Sister of Squire Allworthy. She gives birth to Tom when she is unmarried and hires anotherwoman to pose as his mother. After Bridget marries Captain Blifil, she gives birth to a son who becomes Tom's rival.Blifil: Devious son of Bridget. He tries to manipulate处理events to assure his inheritance of Allworthy's estate.
Lady Bellaston: London relative of Sophia Western with whom Sophia lodges. Lady Bellaston has liaisons with many menand seduces T om Jones. When she discovers that Tom's true love is Sophia, she becomes jealous and angry and schemesto get revenge against both of them.
Jenny Jones / Mrs. Waters: Servant girl who poses as the mother of Tom Jones when he is an infant. Although she is notmarried, she adopts the name Mrs. Waters after she begins to live with Captain Waters. She has a sexual encounter withTom at an inn at Upton. She later plays a key role in helping to extricate Tom from difficulties. Partridge: Schoolteacherwrongly accused of fathering Tom Jones. After Tom grows up, he and Partridge become traveling companions. Partridge'srelationship with Jones resembles that of a page to a knight. It is also not unlike the comic relationship between SanchoPanza and Don Quixote in the Cervantes novel Don Quixote de La Mancha. VI. Main Conflict
The main conflict is T om Jones vs the forces he must overcome to reunite with Sophia and become a responsible youngadult. These forces include the people attempting to match Sophia with Blifil or Fellamar. They also include the forces insideTom himself—such as his reckless and lustful behavior—that he must master to win Sophia and become an upstandingyoung man.
VII. Foreshadowings 铺垫
\"Like father, like son,\" an old saying proclaims. The narrator notes that Captain Blifil married Bridget for the Allworthy money.This observation foreshadows young Blifil's preoccupation总想着with inheriting the Allworthy estate.
Also, the birth of Blifil after eight months of marriage hints at the promiscuous随便的nature of Bridget, preparing the reader forthe eventual revelation that she bore Tom out of wedlock.VIII. Climax
.......A series of important developments occurs in chapters 17 and 18 that testify to Tom's parentage and character andreconcile调和him with Squire Allworthy. Taken together, these developments resemble a climax. However, the true climaxappears to occur in Chapter 12 of Book 18 when T om and Sophia are left alone in a room to confront each other. In thisscene, Sophia still has reservations about marrying Tom because of his history of wanton荡妇的
behavior. Tom implores her again and again to accept him, pledging his love for her and vowing to remain ever faithful andmorally upright. If she rejects him, all of his efforts on her behalf will be for naught⽆⽤的, and the novel will end unhappily.But she says she will accept him on condition that he undergo a trial period of perhaps twelve months to prove his worth.Squire Western, who has been eavesdropping偷听on their conversation, then steps in and says such a long wait is folly.They should marry the next day. Sophia says she will obey her father. Her decision prepares the way for further disclosuresand a look at the first few years of Tom and Sophia's marriage, which gives them two children.IX. Tom Jones as a Mock Epic
.......An epic such as The Iliad or The Aeneid uses a serious tone and a dignified, elevated writing style to describe heroicevents. A mock epic borrows the style of such an epic to describe trivial events as if they were heroic. Many passages in TomJones are written in the mock-heroic style for comic effect. The following two passages are mock-heroic battles, the firstoccurring outside a church and the second at the inn at Upton.●The Church Battle
●The Free-for-All at the Upton Inn (Book 9, Chapter 3)X. Main Themes
1. Epic Journey Toward Manhood
The central theme of the novel is the amusing epic journey of Tom Jones toward maturation, self-realization, and union withhis beloved. Jones begins his journey as a mischievous调⽪的adolescent, continues it as an adventurous and recklessteenager, and concludes it as a mature and morally upright adult who settles down as a husband and father.
The hero confronts perils and undergoes trials before completing his journey. In this respect, Fielding's hero is like the heroof Homer's Odyssey, the great epic poem recounting the adventures of Odysseus on his way home after the Trojan War. InThe Odyssey, for example, the hero, Odysseus, encounters alluring women who steer him away from his ultimate goal, whichis to reunite with his beloved Penelope. In Tom Jones, the hero, Tom, likewise meets seductive women, who divert hisattention from Sophia. In Homer's work, Odysseus battles monsters, such as the twin terrors Scylla and Charybdis, and
becomes a prisoner on Calypso's island; in Fielding's work, T om also battles monsters, such the twin terrors Thwackum andSquare, and becomes a prisoner in a London jail. Ultimately, Odysseus returns home to Penelope and vanquishes thesuitors seeking the hand of Penelope. Tom, too, returns home after vanquishing Sophia's suitors and marrying her.There is an important difference, however, between the recounting of T om's journey and the recounting of the journey ofOdysseus: The former is comical and playful; the latter is deadly serious, with an elevated tone.2.Importance of Character vs Family Origin
In spite of the faults that Tom exhibits during his adolescent and teenage escapades, he is always trustworthy, and
charitable. He is also resourceful and courageous. Nevertheless, Thwackum, Square, and many other adults in his life lookdown on him because he was born out of wedlock and is thought to be the bastard son of a servant girl. Many of those with apedigree⾎统, on the other hand, lack the integrity of Tom.XI. Other Themes
Love: Tom Jones's love for Sophia, thwarted反对at first by his own behavior and the actions of others, continues to burnwithin him after Squire Allworthy banishes him. After Tom determines to win her back, his love for her becomes the primarymotive in everything he does, even when he becomes the plaything of Lady Bellaston.
Hypocrisy: Examples: Blifil pretends to be honest, loyal, and fair-minded but is a hateful schemer behind the backs of others.Thwackum and Square pretend to be morally upright. But Thwackum abuses Tom; Square visits the morally loose teenagerMolly Seagrim.
Deceit: Examples: Bridget, the mother of Tom, hires Jenny Jones to pretend to be his mother. Blifil learns after the death of
his mother that she was also the mother of Tom Jones. But he pretends to know nothing of the matter while continuingdemean his half-brother.
Coincidence: Many of life's turning points result from coincidences. In Tom Jones, coincidences occur frequently (perhapstoo frequently), and often they are indeed turning points. One of the most memorable coincidences in the book occurs whenTom happens to be out riding when Sophia loses control of her horse. When it throws her, he catches her but breaks his arm.The accident leads to his confinement to a bed in the Western home. While recuperating, he falls in love with Sophia.Lack of Self-Control: Many of the characters act out of the emotion or desire of the moment without regard for the morality orconsequences of their action. Tom, Bridget Allworthy, Molly Seagrim, Lady Bellaston, Mr. Fitzpatrick, Ensign Northerton, andBlack George are among the characters who lack self-mastery.XII. Figures of Speech
.......Tom Jones is rich in metaphors, alliterations, and other figures of speech that set the mood, describe a character or his orher actions, narrate an event, and so on. Following are examples of figures of speech in the novel.1. Alliteration Repetition of a Consonant Sound
M oreover, we m ay re m ark that at this s eason love is of a more s erious and s teady nature than what s ometimes shows its elf in the younger part s of life. (Book 1 , Chapter 11)
2. Anaphora⾸语重复法Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of word groups occurring one after the otherExample 2 : Thus, not all the charms of the incomparable Sophia; not all the dazzling brightness, and languishing
softness of her eyes; the harmony of her voice, and of her person; not all her wit, good-humour, greatness of mind, or
sweetness of disposition, had been able so absolutely to conquer and enslave the heart of poor Jones, as this little incidentof the muff. (Book 5, Chapter 4)
3. Apostrophe Addressing an abstraction or thing, present or absent, or addressing an absent person or entity. Example: O,Shakespear! had I thy pen! O, Hogarth! had I thy pencil! then would I draw the picture of the poor serving-man. . . . (Book 10,Chapter 8)
4. Irony outcome that is the opposite of what one expects
Example 2 .......Allworthy fights injustice but, ironically, becomes its agent when he finds Partridge guilty of fathering TomJones.
5. Dramatic Irony a form of irony in which a reader or an audience is aware of something of which the speaker is not
In the following passage, Mrs. Western (who is speaking to Squire Western) is unaware, or refuses to believe, that she is alsoan oppressive influence.(Book 10, Chapter 8)
6. Metaphor Comparison of unlike things without using like, as, or thanExample 2
Comparison of Sophia's complexion to attire worn by death and love
[T]he pale livery of death succeeds the red regimentals in which Love had before drest her cheeks. . . . (Book 6, Chapter 9)7. Personification Comparison of things or ideas to persons
Envy, the sister of Satan, and his constant companion, rushed among the crowd, and blew up the fury of the women; who nosooner came up to Molly than they pelted her with dirt and rubbish. (Book 4, Chapter 8)Chapter 18 The 18th Century DramaI. Brief survey
1. the flourishment of the drama, esp the comedy – the understanding of the audience and the desire to entertain them withbright, gay and witty work
2. The drama of the period focused on the analysis of social manners – satire.3. the development of the stages
●the first half of the century-------occasional pseudo-classical tragedy
●the second half of the century------political farces and burlesques 滑稽讽刺剧(The Beggar’s Opera by HenryFielding)
●after 1760------sentimental comedy – a certain amount of tears, a contrasting amount of laughter and a happyending. (The Conscious Lovers (1772) by Sir Richard Steele)Richard Brinsley Sheridan （1751--1816）I. Life Story
Born in Dublin / to England after the death of his mother / married Elizabeth A. Linley in 1773 / to secure the shares in thefamous Drury Lane Theatre / a stage manager / went into parliament / was arrested for debt in 1813 and suffered from braindiseaseII. His Career
1. He wrote a brilliant series of comedies in the Restoration manner of witty dialogue and high spirits.2. His works：The Rivals; The Duenna, The Critic; The School for Scandal;The School for Scandal By Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816)I. Type of Work and First Performance
customs of upper classes through witty dialogue and an intricate plot with comic situations that expose characters'
shortcomings. Characters generally consist of stock types—such as the bore, the flirt调情的⼈, the gossip, the wastrel败家⼦,the rich uncle, etc.—rather than individuals with unique qualities. Comedies of manners in Sheridan's time typically avoidedthe romantic sentimentality that characterized many other stage dramas of the eighteenth century. In The School for Scandal,the author mainly satirizes malicious gossip and hypocrisy in the fashionable society of London in the 1770s. The play wasfirst performed in London on May 8, 1777, in Drury Lane Theatre.II. Setting: The action takes place in London in the 1770s.III. Characters
Protagonist: Charles Surface Antagonists: Joseph Surface, Lady Sneerwell
Charles Surface: Young bachelor notorious for his extravagance and dissipation挥霍. However, his dissolute放荡的behaviormay only be a passing phase. At heart, he is a good and generous person. He and Maria are in love. Joseph Surface: Youngbachelor who pretends to be an honorable gentlemen but is really a double-dealing⼝是⼼⾮的scoundrel⽆赖. He is the olderbrother of Charles Surface. Joseph is in love with the fortune （Maria is to receive）. He plots with Lady Sneerwell to breakup Charles and Maria. Meanwhile, he attempts to seduce the wife of Sir Peter Teazle.
Maria: Desirable and wealthy young ward of Sir Peter Teazle. She is a woman of principle who refuses to gossip. Lady
Sneerwell: Young widow of a knight. She is attracted to Charles Surface and plots with Joseph Surface to break up Charlesand Maria.
Snake: Cat's paw of Lady Sneerwell. He spreads false rumors designed to help Lady Sneerwell achieve her goals.Rowley: Helpful servant and friend of Sir Peter Teazle and a former servant of the father of the Surface brothers. He is anupright fellow who sees through Joseph's hypocrisy. Aware of Snake's nefarious behavior, he pays him to reveal that thestories he has been spreading for Lady Sneerwell and Joseph are lies.
Sir Oliver Surface: Wealthy uncle of Charles and Joseph Surface. After returning to England from the East Indies, hedisguises himself to find out the truth about his nephews.IV. Prologue开场⽩
Following the tribute to Mrs. Crewe is a prologue written by David Garrick (1717-1779), a prominent actor and co-manager ofDrury Lane Theatre, where the play opened on May 8, 1777. The prologue discusses the difficulty of preventing people f romspreading scandal via tongue or written word. The prologue says, ―Cut scandal's head off, still the tongue is wagging.‖
V. Climax
The climax occurs near the end of Act 5 after Rowley brings in Snake. He and Lady Teazle then testify作证against LadySneerwell (and, by implication暗⽰, against Joseph).VI. Epilogue 收场
In the epilogue—written by George Colman, a playwright who managed the Haymarket Theatre—Lady Teazel resignsherself to adapting to a life with her middle-aged husband, saying:
I, who was late so volatile反复⽆常的and gay, Bend all my cares, my studies, and my vows,
Like a trade wind must now blow all one way, To one dull rusty weathercock 随风倒的⼈my spouse! VII. Themes1. Defamation 诽谤、诋毁of Character
Underlying the comedy is a serious theme: condemnation of the odious令⼈讨厌的practice of slander and, in the case of thewritten letters, libel诽谤⽂字. Spreading scandal was commonplace in London's high society of the 1770s, whenconversation—in drawing rooms, at balls, in spas, and across card tables—was a form of entertainment.2. Deceptive Appearances
Charles Surface has a reputation as a scoundrel. But beneath his flawed veneer外表, he is a decent fellow. Joseph Surfacehas a reputation as an upright man. But beneath his flawless veneer, he is a villain. Hence, this
模范操⾏端正while attempting to sabotage蓄意破坏his brother and marry into a fortune. Mrs. Candour and others of her ilkpretend to oppose gossip but delight in spreading it.4. Steadfast Integrity 坚定不移的正直感
Amid all the wrongdoings in the play, it is easy to overlook the moral resolve of Maria—and to a lesser extent, Charles. Mariarefuses to gossip and repeatedly denounces谴责the practice. For example, in Act 1, when Lady Sneerwell asks her what SirBenjamin Backbite has done to make her run from him, she replies, \"Oh, he has done nothing—but 'tis what he said: hisconversation is a perpetual永远的libel on all his acquaintance.\" Later, in the same act, she tells Mrs. Candour, \"'Thisstrangely impertinent莽撞for people to busy themselves so [with gossip].\"5. Pitfalls易犯错误of Idleness
An implied theme in the play is that idleness breeds mischief损害. Most of the characters live on inherited money and
property, allowing them to devote a good portion of their time to leisure activities. Telling or listening to scandalous stories, aswell as reading about them, is apparently one of their favorite pastimes. Favored activities of the young include gambling anddrinking.
VIII. Anti-Semitic Overtones犹太的弦外之⾳
In England and other European countries in the late Middle Ages, laws required Jews to wear identifying patches not unlikethe yellow stars in Hitler's Germany centuries later. During outbreaks of plague, Christians blamed Jews for spreading thedisease. England decided to solve the \"Jewish problem\" once and for all by expelling Jews in 1290. Beginning in 1655,England under Oliver Cromwell readmitted重新接纳Jews. In 1753, Parliament approved legislation granting the
naturalization of Jewish immigrants. However, anti-Semitism remained strong in the country. The School for Scandal, whichdebuted in 1777, contains passages that reflect the attitude of many Englishmen toward Jews. Several of these passagesdescribe the Jewish moneylender Moses as \"the honest Israelite,\" \"honest Moses,\" and \"very honest fellow,\" implying thathis honesty is rare among Jews. In the first scene of Act 3, Rowley refers to Moses as a \"friendly Jew,\" implying that mostother Jews are unfriendly. Later in the same scene, Sir Oliver—in preparing for his role as Mr. Premium—tells Moses that hewill ask eight to ten percent in interest if Charles asks him for a loan. Here is the the dialogue in that scene, clearly implyingthat Jewish moneylenders are avaricious businessmen.Sir Oliver. I'll ask him 8 or 10 per cent on the loan, at least.
Moses. If you ask him no more than that, you'll be discovered immediately.Sir Oliver. Hey! what the plague! how much then?
Moses. That depends upon the circumstances. If he appears not very anxious for the supply, you should require only 40 or 50per cent; but if you find him in great distress, and want the moneys very bad, you may ask double.
Sir Peter. A good honest trade you're learning, Sir Oliver!
Chapter 1 Introduction to Romanticism (1798--1832) As a historical period in English literature, the age of Romanticismextends from 1798, when Wordsworth and Coleridge published their Lyrical Ballads, to the 1832, when all the major
Romantic writers were either dead or no longer productive. Romanticism, the predominant literary mode of the first third of the19th century, was expressed
●To begin with the storming of Bastille on July 14, 1789 / King Louis XVI beheaded / the monarchy abolished inFrance
●The French Revolution evoked enthusiastic support from English liberals and intellectuals and stimulated twoinfluential books: Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man, which justifies the revolution; the other is William Godwin’s InquiryConcerning Political Justice, which was more important for its influence on Wordsworth, Shelley and other poets.●During the Romantic period, almost all the leading writers were in sympathy with and were inspired by the
French Revolution. William Hazlitt described the French Revolution as ―the dawn of a new era,‖ maintaining that the newpoetry of the Romantic poets had its origins in the French Revolution. Its ideals – liberty, equality, and fraternity – had a verystrong influence on the writers over the period.2. The Industrial Revolution
●Began in the mid-18th century, from a primarily agricultural society(the old aristocracy) to a modern industrialnation (the bourgeoisie).
●Farmers forced to the city by the enclosures –The Deserted Village by GoldsmithThe hard life of the workers – Isabella by Keats
●In the early 19th century, the workers’ struggles brok e out. –the Luddites, who destroyed the masters’ machinesto show their hatred. – Song for the Luddites by Byron;
“Peterloo Massacre‖ –England in 1819; Song to the Men of England; The Masque of Anarchy by ShelleyII. The Meaning of Romanticism
1. The Romantic Movement, which Victor Hugo calls ―liberalism in literature‖, is simply the expression of life as seen by theimagination rather than by prosaic ―common sense‖, which was the central doctrine of English philosophy in the 18thcentury.
As a way of thinking and as an approach to literature, Romanticism is associated with vitality, powerful emotion, limitless anddreamlike ideas; Classicism; by contrast, is associated with order, common sense and controlled reason.
Shelley explained this literary spirit as the accompaniment of political and social revolution and other writers agreed. Theimagination of the Romantic writers was, indeed, preoccupied with the fact and ideas of revolution.2. Three schools
●the Lake School (the Passive Romantic School) – Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey●the Cockney 伦敦派School – Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt and associated writers, including Keats●the Satanic School (the Active Romantic School) – Byron, ShelleyIII. The Special Qualities of Romanticism
Romanticism favored innovation over traditionalism in the materials, forms and style of literature.1. The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings (Wordsworth)Romanticism –
1) the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings;
2) Much of romantic poetry represented the poets themselves or the things around them.
3) lay emphasis on the emotion and untrammelled imagination; the immediate act of composition, if a poem is to be genuine,must be spontaneous that is arising from impulse and free from all the rules and conventions of his neoclassicalpredecessors.Cf: Neoclassicm --1) Poetry was primarily an imitation of human life, a mirror held up to nature.2) Neoclassical literature was about other people.
3) In neoclassical theory, poetry was primarily an ―Art‖, which must be perfected by long study and practice.
Keats wrote, ―If poetry comes not as naturally as the leaves to a tree, it had better not come at all.‖ Blake insisted that hewrote from ―inspiration and vision.‖ Shelley maintained that it is ―an error to assert that the finest passages of poetry areproduced by labor and study‖, and suggested that they are the products of an unconscious creativity.2. The creation of a world of imaginaiton
The Romantic poets found undiscovered countries in their own imaginations. Shelley and Blake described a poem as thepoet’s imaginati ons. Coleridge also introduced into English criticism an organic theory of the imaginative process,
describing a great work of literature as a self-originating and self-organizing process which begins with a seedlike idea in thepoet’s imagination. By vivi d imagination, the Romatic writers were capable of fantastic dream worlds, thus much of romanticliterature has magical or miraculous effects.3. The return to nature for material
To an extraordinary degree, Romantic writers took the world of nature as a persistent subject of their poetry, and described itwith an accuracy of observation unprecedented in earlier writers. This was in marked contrast to Neoclassical writers, whoconfined themselves largely to the clubs and drawing rooms and to the social and politicallife of London.
The natural scene in Romantic poetry is not presented for its own sake, but serves as a stimulus to thought, thereforeRomantic nature poems are meditative poems. In addition, Romantic poems often fill the natural scene with human life,passion, and expressiveness or give them symbolic meanings. The following lines are written by William Blake:“To see a World in a Grain of Sand And Heaven in a Wild Flower Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand And Eternity in ahour.”
4. Sympathy with the humble and glorification of the commonplace
Romanticism was marked by intense human sympathy, and by a consequent understanding of the human heart, whichneoclassicism had lacked. The Romantic writers sympathized with the poor and cried against oppression.
The serious treatment of lovely subjects in common language violated the basic neoclassical rule, which asserted thatserious genres should deal with high subjects in an appropriately elevated style and polished language. Unlike the
classicists before them, Romantic writers turned to describe humble people, everyday life, trivial things and familiar matters.For example, Wordsworth’s poems were crowded with convicts罪犯，female vagrants流浪汉, gypsies, idiot boys and madmothers, as well as peasants, peddlers and village barbers.5. Emphasis on the expression of individual genius
Emphasis was not placed on what human beings possessed in common but on the individual. Man is regarded as havinginfinite potentialities and creative power.
The Romantic Movement was the expression of individual genius, which was marked by strong reaction and protest againstthe bondage of rules. In consequence, the literature of Romanticism was as varied as the character and moods of the
different writers. When we read Pope, we have a general impression of sameness, as if all his polished and refined poemswere made in the same machine; but in the works of the best Romantics, there is endless variety.6. The return to Milton and the Elizabethans for literary models
Romantic writers looked back to the Renaissance poets as their masters, instead of Dryden, Pope or Johnson. Spenser,Shakespeare, and Milton were the inspiration of the romantic revival; and we can hardly read a poem of the early Romanticswithout finding a suggestion of the influence of one of these great poets.
7. The interest in old stories and medieval romances
Although many of the romantic writers dealt with the everyday things of their contemporary world, they also took greatinterests in the supernatural. They drew materials from the old legends, myths, folktales, esp the chivalry and high
adventures of the Middle Ages, and restored them into vivid and beautiful passions of new ideas and feelings. The exampleis Walter Scott, with his historical novels, and his popular long narrative poems. The romantic writers turned from the actualworld to the past or imaginary worlds, because there were no boundaries to confine them.8. A sense of melancholy and loneliness
In the works of the romantics, we can often sense a gloomy mood of melancholy and loneliness, resulting from the frustrationof their efforts in revolting against the established code and convention.
To most romantics, poetry was the hope of the world. Shelley wrote that poets were the prophets of future, and the
unacknowledged legislators of mankind. Keats sought steadily for perfect beauty and perfect truth, expressed in perfectpoetry.
Such high hopes of ideal attainment, however, could hardly be realized. The consequent disappointment led to a kind ofmela ncholy that underlies much Romantic poetry. Shelley said, ―Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest
thoughts.‖ Keats also learned that melancholy sprang from knowing that beauty ―must die,‖ and that ―the fancy cannotcheat so well as she is famed to do.‖ Because they aimed so high, the romantics were often in anguish at falling short of theiraims.
9. The rebellious spirit
Most of the romantic writers were rebels against society or social conventions. The first generation of Romantics –
Wordsworth and Coleridge –deliberately isolated themselves from society to live near nature, and wrote poems about nature,about common people, and about supernatural dreams, trying to find a substitute for the ugly industrial life that worked suchhardships on working people.
The second generation – Byron, Shelley and Keats – were more radical. They openly sang for revolutions, spoke for theworking people, and wished for a better world. Byron and Shelley themselves were revolutionaries in their desire for libertyfor the individual. Because the two generations faced the society in different ways, Gorky divided them into the ―passive‖and the ―active‖ romantic school.Chapter 2Romantic Poetry (1)
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)：The represenatative poet of the first generation of Romantics and the chief spokesman ofRomantic poetry.I. Life
Born in 1770 in the lake district of Cumberland / lost parents when he was young and was brought up by relatives / to study atHawksherd in the beautiful lake region in Northwestern England, where he had time to lead a life of delighted freedom in thesurrounding hills. / to enter Cambridge in 1787 / in 1790 he took a continental tour to France, Alps, and Italy. / He returned toFrance in 1791 and spent a year there. The French Revolution was then at its height and exercised a strong influence on hismind. / in 1797, he made friends with Coleridge, a personal influence of at least equal importance, and they lived together inthe Lake District. / In 1798, they jointly published a memorable volume the Lyrical Ballads. / it marked the opening of anepoch in the history of English poetry – the break with the
conventional poeticle tradition of the 18th century neoclassicism, and the beginning of the Romantic Movement in England. /Wordworth’s attitude towards revolution changed into conservative, and he was criticized by the younger romantics likeByron and Shelley. / on the death of Southey (1843), he was made Poet Laureate. For nearly 50 years he lived a secludedlife close to nature and died in 1850.II. His Works
●His best poems are descriptions of nature – of mountains, rivers, flowers, birds, children and peasants.●His works include: We are Seven; Lines Written in Early Spring; To the Cuckoo, I wandered Lonely as a Cloud;the Lucy Poems; The Solitary Reaper and the Prelude.
●1)He pointed out the situations of poetry should be related in ―language really used by men,‖ and the poet shoulduse a diction as natural and direct as that of the most natural speech.
2)All good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings. The language of the poet should not beabstract.
3)It is the figure of speech which makes poetry, not the elegance of vocabulary.
● A constant theme of Wordsworth’s poetry was the growth of the human spirit through the natural environment,
and he skillfully combined natural description with expressions of inward states of mind. His poems are characterized by asympathy with the poor, simple peasants, and a passionate love of nature. They have been
.......William Wordsworth's \"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud‖ is
beauty of nature. (A lyric poem presents the deep feelings and emotions of the poet rather than telling a story or presenting awitty observation.) The final version of the poem was first published in Collected Poems in 1815. An earlier version waspublished in Poems in Two Volumes in 1807 as a three-stanza poem. The final version has four stanzas. Wordsworth wrotethe earlier version in 1804, two years after seeing the lakeside daffodils that inspired the poem.II. Setting and Background Information
.......The poem recaptures a moment on April 15, 1802, when Wordsworth and his sister, Dorothy, were walking near a lake atGrasmere, Cumbria County, England, and came upon a shore lined with daffodils. Grasmere is in northwestern England'sLake District, between Morecambe Bay on the south and Solway Firth on the north. The Lake District extends twenty-fivemiles east to west and thirty miles north to south. Among its attractions are England’s highest mountain, Scafell Pike (3,210feet), and Esthwaite Lake and other picturesque meres radiating outward, like the points of a star, from the town of Grasmere.Wordsworth and his sister, Dorothy, moved to a cottage at Grasmere in 1799. After Wordsworth married in 1802, his wiferesided there also. The family continued to live there until 1813. The Lake District was the haunt of not only Wordsworth butalso poets Robert Southey, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Thomas De Quincey. Dorothy, who kept a diary, described whatshe and her brother saw on that April day in 1802:
When we were in the woods beyond Gowbarrow park we saw a few daffodils close to the water side, we fancied that the lakehad floated the seeds ashore & that the little colony had so sprung up— But as we went along there were more & yet more &at last under the boughs of the trees, we saw that there was a long belt of them along the shore, about the breadth of a
country turnpike road . . . Some rested their heads on [mossy] stones as on a pillow for weariness & the rest tossed & reeled& danced & seemed as if they verily laughed with the wind that blew upon them over the Lake, they looked so gay ever
glancing ever changing. This wind blew directly over the lake to them. There was here & there a little knot & a few stragglersa few yards higher up but they were so few as not to disturb the simplicity & unity & life of that one busy highway... —Raincame on, we were wet.
这⾸诗充分利⽤了拟⼈、⽐喻等⼿法将⼤⾃然的美妙表现得⽣动逼真，似乎将读者置⾝于湖畔上连绵的⽔仙花随风舞动的风景当中。⽽最后两段诗⼈的沉吟和思考，表现了诗⼈享受于回味⾃然美景带来的精神愉悦，这也符合华兹华斯推崇的诗歌体现主观感受的理念。
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)：Poet and criticI. His life story
to publish Lyrical Ballads with Wordsworth / The principle of the collaboration was that while Wordsworth was to reveal thepoetical significance of the commonplace of life, Coleridge was to dramatize human emotions aroused by extraordinaryevents. / Like Wordsworth, Coleridge also turned from radical to conservative in political ideas. /II. His works
1. the supernatural poemsKubla Khan忽必列汗
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner古⾈⼦咏Christabel克丽斯德蓓2. the conversation poems
Frost at Night The Nightingale This Lime-Tree Bower3. Style
●His poetry shares with Wordsworth’s new simplicity of diction and fluency of movement, but his best poems arecharacterized by a sense of mystery and demonism 对⿁怪之崇拜.
●His poems are especially noted for their supernatural and fantastic atmosphere, their peculiar and mysticimagery, and their haunting music.
The romanticism of both Wordsworth and Coleridge comes out in their reverence信奉for the spontaneity⾃发and inherentdignity of the feelings, and their cultivation of truthful and profound expression of them.The Rime of the Ancient Mariner古⾈⼦咏/⽼⽔⼿
1.Type of Work ：The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is a narrative poem in which a seaman tells another man a strange andterrifying tale.2.Date of Publication
The poem was published in 1798 in Lyrical Ballads, then revised and published in 1817 in the version that is popular today.Coleridge received help from the poet William Wordsworth. The editors of Major British Writers, a literature anthology,explain Wordsworth's contribution:
Originally, Coleridge and Wordsworth intended to write this poem in collaboration. Wordsworth’s manner proved unsuited forthe purpose, however, and after contributing half a dozen lines [Part II, Lines 13-16 and Lines 226-227] and suggesting theshooting of the albatross and “the reanimation⿎励of the dead bodies to work the ship,”Wordsworth withdrew, and Coleridgeproceeded alone.—G.B. Harrison, general ed. Major British Writers. Shorter edition. New York: Harcourt, 1967, Page 592.3.Sources
When Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, accounts of the daring sea voyages of the British explorer CaptainJames Cook (1728-1779) had caught the public's fancy. Cook had made three exploratory voyages in the Pacific between1768 and 1779, traveling as far north as the Bering Strait (between Alaska and Russia) and as far south as the ice fields ofAntarctica. One of his crewmen, astronomer William Wales, later taught mathematics to Coleridge at Christ's Hospital Schoolin London after Coleridge enrolled upon the death of his father in 1781. Australian Bernard Smith maintains that Coleridgelikely used a journal kept by Wales as a source of information for The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, according to Bill Whelen,author of Captain Cook's Navigator and Coleridge's Poem: William Wales, Samuel T aylor Coleridge and 'The Rime of theAncient Mariner' (Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago Press, 2009). Other sources used by Coleridge includesuperstitions and folk tales.4.Setting
The action takes place in the following locales several hundred years ago: (1) a street or byway in a locale with a hall inwhich a wedding reception is being held; (2) a sailing ship with 201 crew members, including the ancient mariner; (3) theAtlantic Ocean; (4) the South Pole; (4) the Pacific Ocean; (5) the mariner’s native country (undisclosed). The atmosphere isghostly, preternatural, and mysterious.5.Characters
Ancient Mariner: Old sailor who roams from country to country to tell a strange tale.
Wedding Guest: Man on the way to a wedding reception with two other men. The mariner singles out the wedding guest tohear his tale.
Two Hundred Crewmen: Ill-fated members of the ship carrying the mariner.
Pilot: Boatman who rescues the mariner. (A pilot is an official who guides ships into and out of a harbor.)Pilot’s Boy: Pilot’s assistant.
Hermit: Holy man who absolves the mariner and hears his story.
Albatross: Large, web-footed sea bird with a hooked bill. Most species of albatrosses wander the southern seas, from tropicalregions down to Antarctica, drinking sea water and feeding on squid, cuttlefish, and other small sea creatures. Sometimes,
they follow ships to feed on their garbage. Albatrosses have an astonishing ability to glide in the wind, sometimes for hours,but have difficulty staying aloft without a wind. In the latter case, they sit on the water to rest or sleep. When it is time to breed,they go ashore. An old superstition says killing an albatross brings bad luck, although sailors have been known to kill and eatthem. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner has helped make this superstition common knowledge throughout the world amonglandlubbers as well as sailors. In modern parlance, a person or an event that brings bad luck is often referred to as analbatross.
6.Narration: Poem as a Frame Tale
A narrator begins the poem by telling the reader about an ancient mariner who stops a man on the street to recite a stor y.After getting the man’s attention, the mariner then tells his tale. Thus, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is like a framed
painting. The frame represents one narrator telling about the mariner; the painting represents the mariner narrating his story.The mariner sometimes quotes another person, such as the Pilot. However, the Pilot is not a narrator, since he is merelyspeaking dialogue and not telling a story.7.Structure, Rhyme
Coleridge divides the poem into seven parts. Most of the stanzas in the poem have four lines; several have five or six lines. Inthe four-line stanzas, the second and fourth lines usually rhyme. In the five- and six-line stanzas, the second or third lineusually rhymes with the final line.8.Meter
The meter alternates between iambic tetrameter (with four feet per line) and iambic trimeter (with three feet per line).Following is an example (the first four lines of Part II) of a stanza with this pattern:.......1.................2...............3 (4)
\"The SUN..|..now ROSE..|..up ON..|..the RIGHT:....(tetrameter) .....1..............2 (3)Out OF..|..the SEA..|..came HE,................................(trimeter) ......1..............2...............3 (4)Still HID..|..in MIST,..|..and ON..|..the LEFT.............(tetrameter) .........1................2. (3)Went DOWN..|..in TO..|..the SEA...............................(trimeter)9.Themes
●Sin and Redemption
Man is a sinful creature, but redemption awaits him if he repents his wrongdoing and performs penance. This theme
manifests itself as follows: After the ancient mariner commits a sin by killing the albatross, guilt hounds him in the form ofstrange natural and supernatural phenomena. During one terrifying experience, he has a change of heart and repents hiswrongdoing. After confessing to the Hermit, he carries out a penance, which is to travel the world to tell his tale to strangers.●Respect for Nature
Human beings should respect all of God’s creation and all of His creatures, including the albatross and even sea snakes. Indoing so, people indicate their respect for the Creator Himself. In his parting words to the wedding guest, the narrator says,Farewell, farewell! but this I tell To thee, thou Wedding-Guest! He prayeth well, who loveth wellBoth man and bird and beast. (lines 611-614)●Terror
The mariner undergoes terrifying experiences as he confronts supernatural wonders, in particular the female figure known asLife-in-Death. When the mariner sees her rolling dice with death, he says,We listen'd and look'd sideways up!Fear at my heart, as at a cup,
My life-blood seem'd to sip! (lines 204-206)
The mariner even frightens the wedding guest when he tells him that all the crewmen fell dead one by one. The weddingguest says,
\"I fear thee, ancient Mariner!
I fear thy skinny hand! And thou art long, and lank, and brown, As is the ribbed sea-sand. (lines 225-228)
Coleridge plainly makes the point that beyond the boundaries of the known world are many strange and fearful sights thatexplorers will encounter.10.Main Symbols●The Ancient Mariner
The Ancient Mariner as Adam: Adam committed the original sin that brought woe upon mankind. The original sin in this
context is the killing of the albatross. The crewmen ar e inheritors of the mariner’s original sin, just as Christians are inheritorsof Adam’s original sin. As the mariner says, \"And I had done an hellish thing, And it would work 'em woe.\"●The Ancient Mariner
The Ancient Mariner as Christian Sinner: When the ancient mariner kills the albatross (described in the poem asa holy thing ―hailed in God’s name\"), he is like the Christian who commits sins for which Christ died on the cross.●Ghost Ship
Ghost Ship as Wages of Sin: The ghostly skeleton ship carries Death and Life-in-Death. Death, of course, is a consequenceof original sin. Life-in-Death is the loneliness, the separation from God, that a sinner encounters before dying.●pilot
The boat Pilot rescues the mariner after the ship sinks, representing the saving grace of a merciful God.●Hermit
The Hermit represents redemption. He hears the mariner's confession and pronounces a penance, requiring the mariner totell his tale the world over to warn others of the consequences of sin.●Wedding Celebration
Everyday life that continues merrily without its participants' full knowledge and respect of the higher rules of the universe. Aspart of his penance, the mariner educates one of the wedding guests about the importance of abiding by the laws of God. Thescene of a wedding celebration is, of course, an excellent place for the mariner to tell his story. After all, a marriage is abeginning, and new life will come from it. Will the newlyweds and their children abide by God's laws? Or will they
thoughtlessly shoot albatrosses? Perhaps the wedding guest who walks on at the end of the poem will pass on his newinsights to the bride, the groom, and others at the wedding feast.11.Climax
The climax of the poem occurs when the mariner has a change of heart and the albatross falls from his neck. 12.InternalRhyme 中间韵
Besides end rhyme, Coleridge also frequently uses internal rhyme. Following are examples.The guests are met, the feast is set (line 7)
The ship drove fast, loud roared the blast(line 49) And through the drifts the snowy clifts (line 54) The ice did split with athunder-fit (line 69)
In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud (line 75)The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew (line 103)13.Inversion
For poetic effect, Coleridge inverts the word order from time to time, as the following lines demonstrate. Instead of the cross,the Albatross
About my neck was hung. (lines 141-142) ----The normal word order would be \"was hung about my neck.\"Through utter drought all dumb we stood! (line 159) ----The normal word order would be \"we stood all dumb.\"
The naked hulk alongside came (line 195) ----The normal word order would be \"came alongside.\"14.Enjambment (诗句之)跨⾏连续
Coleridge occasionally uses enjambment, the practice of carrying the sense of one line of verse over to the next line withouta pause. Here are examples:
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